AN 


PROVED    GRAMMAR 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE 


BY  NOAH  WEBSTER,  LL.  D. 


NEW    HAVEN: 
PUBLISHED  BY  DURRIE  AND  PECK. 

1833. 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1831,  by  NOAH 
WEBSTER,  in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


5DUCA 


PREFACE 


THE  British  Grammars  of  the  English  language  appear  to  me  to 
be  very  imperfect,  and,  in  some  particulars,  very  erroneous.  Since 
the  publication  of  the  grammars  of  Lowtli  and  Priestley,  who 
added  most  of  the  improvements,  which  have  been  made  since  the 
days  of  Wallis,  some  important  discoveries  have  been  made  in  the 
origin  of  words  and  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  which  have 
not  been  introduced  into  any  grammar  published  in  Great  Britain ; 
at  least  as  far  as  my  knowledge  extends. 

Grammar  is  a  difficult  subject,  especially  to  the  young  student; 
and  the  difficulties  that  belong  to  the  subject,  have  been  increased 
by  the  use  of  terms  merely  technical  in  designating  the  parts  of 
speech.  On  entering  upon  the  subject,  the  young  student  meets 
with  the  words  noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  verb,  adverb ;  words  he 
never  saw  or  heard  of  before,  as  they  are  no  part  of  the  common 
language  which  he  has  been  accustomed  to  use  ;  and  words  which 
he  does  not  understand.  To  remedy,  as  far  as  possible,  this  evil,  I 
have,  in  tin's  work,  not  only  explained  the  technical  terms,  but  have 
used  other  terms,  with  them,  which  serve  as  .interpreters  of  the 
words  commonly  used.  These  interpreting  words  are  more  easily 
understood,  and  some  of  them  are  more  strictly  correct,  or  better 
adapted  to  express  their  true  signification.  Thus  for  noun,  the 
English  word  name  is  often  used ;  a  word  which  every  child  under- 
stands. This  accords  with  the  practice  of  the  nations  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  For  pronoun,  the  word  substitute  or  representa- 
tive is  sometimes  used ;  for  several  of  the  words  called  pronouns 
are  often  used  in  the  place  of  sentences,  or  they  refer  to  them. 
Mribute  is  a  word  better  understood  than  adjective ;  though  it  were 
to  be  wished,  we  could  find  a  more  familiar  term  for  that  class  of 
words.  For  adverb,  I  often  use  modifier ;  a  term  much  wanted  to 
denote  certain  words  which  have  the  uses  of  different  parts  of 
speech.  Thus  most  and  very,  which  are  adjectives,  are  often  used 
as  adverbs ;  as  in  the  phrases  most  wise,  very  good.  If  we  call 
the  words,  in  such  phrases,  adverbs,  then  we  call  them  by  the  same 
name  as  we  do  mostly  and  verily.  In  like  manner,  up,  over,  to,  which 
are  prepositions,  are  used  to  modify  verbs,  in  such  phrases  as  to 
give  uj),  to  give  over,  to  come  to ;  and  it  seems  very  unnatural  to  call 
them,  in  these  and  similar  forms  of  speech,  prepositions. 

The  terms  used  to  express  the  tenses  of  English  verbs,  are  bor- 
rowed from  the  Latin ;  but  some  of  them  are  improperly  applied. 
Thus,  he  created  is  called  the  imperfect  tense,  denoting  unfinished 
action ;  but  this  is  not  correct :  the  imperfect  tense  in  English  is, 

5 .*-?.« 06  ' 


4  ,,,','         PREFACE. 

fee*  was  cre'atihg.  '  The ,  words  pluperfect  and  preter-pluperfect, 
whicli  cignify;  mort  ihftn  finished,  beyond  more  than  finished,  are 
'•  wry  vc*wkw,ard  term's/  '.Few:  which  reason  I  call  the  tense  which 
'they  designate,  the  prior-past,  which  denotes  an  act  past  prior  to 
another  act,  event  or  time.  In  like  manner,  the  term  prior-future 
is  used  to  denote  an  act  past  prior  to  a  future  time  or  event  speci- 
fied. 

In  this  work,  I  have  given  a  complete  exhibition  of  the  English 
verb,  in  all  its  forms  or  combinations,  declarative,  interrogative  and 
negative.  This  will  show  foreigners,  as  well  as  our  own  youth,  the 
proper  place  of  the  auxiliaries,  and  of  the  sign  of  negation  not,  in 
all  the  various  combinations. 

In  all  or  most  English  Grammars,  an  or  a  is  said  to  be  an  indefi- 
nite article.  This  is  not  true  ;  it  is  used  before  definite  nouns,  as 
well  as  before  those  which  are  indefinite.  It  is  also  said,  that  a 
becomes  an  before  a  vowel ;  but  the  fact  is  directly  the  reverse : 
an  is  the  original  word,  and  loses  the  n  before  a  consonant.  It  is 
the  same  word  as  one,  but  in  Saxon  orthography. 

Grammars  also  tell  us,  that  is  sometimes  a  conjunction.  This  is 
not  true  ;  it  is  always  a  pronoun  or  substitute :  when  it  is  called  a 
v^:^  auction,  it  refers  to  a  sentence. 

In  most  grammars,  notwithstanding  is  called  a  conjunction.  This 
is  not  true  ;  it  is  a  compound  of  not  and  the  participle  withstanding 
and  with  that  expressed  or  understood,  or  with  a  sentence,  consti- 
tuting the  case  absolute,  like  non  obstanie  in  Latin. 

Provided  is  also  called,  in  certain  cases,  a  conjunction.  This  is 
not  true ;  it  is  a  participle  forming  the  case  absolute,  as  above 
stated,  in  regard  to  notwithstanding. 

If  is  called  also  a  conjunction.  "This  is  not  true  ;  it  is  always  a 
Verb,  being  only  a  contracted  form  of  give.  The  fact  is  the  same 
with  though  ;  it  is  a  verb,  but  defective. 

To  the  syntax,  I  have  added  several  new  rules  and  illustrations ; 
the  British  Grammars,  in  this  particular,  beinor  very  defective.  In- 
deed, so  defective  and  erroneous  are  the  British  Grammars,  and  the 
compilations  in  the  United  States,  formed  on  their  principles,  that 
without  some-  further  helps,  the  construction  of  many  established 
and  legitimate  phrases  and  sentences  in  our  language,  cannot  be 
explained. 

The  term  mood  I  have  discarded.  Mode  is  the  proper  transla- 
tion of"  the  Latin  modus ;  and  the  orthography  mood  confounds  this 
grammatical  term  with  a  word  of  different  origin,  denoting  temper 
or  state  of  the  mind. 


AN 

IMPROVED  GRAMMAR',' 


OF   LANGUAGE. 

LANGUAGE,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  is  the  instrument 
or  means  of  communicating  ideas  and  affections  of  the  mind 
and  body,  from  one  animal  to  another.  In  this  sense,  brutes 
possess  the  powers  of  language ;  for  by  various  inarticulate 
sounds,  they  make  known  their  wants,  desires  and  suffer- 
ings. Thus  the  neighing  of  the  horse,  the  lowing  of  the  ox, 
the  cackling  and  chirping  of  birds,  constitute  the  language 
of  those  animals  ;  and  each  respective  species  understand 
instinctively  their  own  peculiar  language.  The  signs  made 
by  deaf  and  dumb  people  form  also  a  kind  of  imperfect  lan- 
guage ;  and  even  the  looks,  when  made  to  express  ideas  and 
affections,  speak  an  intelligible  language. 

As  brutes  have  few  affections  or  ideas,  and  little  neces- 
sity for  communicating  them,  their  language  consists  in  a 
few  inarticulate  sounds.  But  man,  being  a  rational  animal, 
capable  of  acquiring,  and  of  learning  to  communicate  num- 
berless ideas,  is  furnished  with  suitable  organs  for  uttering 
an  indefinite  variety  of  sounds  to  express  his  ideas  ;  and  the 
modulations  of  his  voice,  in  the  distinct  utterance  of  sounds, 
by  opening  and  closing  the  organs,  constitute  what  are  de- 
nominated articulate  sounds. 

DIVISION    OF    LANGUAGE. 

Language  is  of  two  kinds,  spoken  and  written.  The  ele- 
ments of  spoken  language  are  articulate  sounds,  uttered  by 
the  voice,  which  is  formed  by  the  air  issuing  through  the 
glottis,  a  small  aperture  in  the  wind  pipe,  and  modulated  by 
articulations  of  the  throat,  tongue,  palate,  teeth,  and  lips. 
This  is  the  original  and  proper  sense  of  the  word  language. 

But  as  sounds  are  fleeting,  and  not  capable  of  being  com- 
municated to  a  great  distance,  if  men  had  no  other  means  of 
communicating  their  thoughts,  their  intercourse  would  be 
limited  to  a  small  compass,  and  their  ideas  would  be  en- 
1* 


O  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

-trusted  to  memory  and  tradition  only;  by  which  they  would 
soon  be  obscured,  ,perrerted,  or  forgotten.  Hence  the  in- 
vefcUpn.of  characters  rtp  represent  sounds,  exhibit  them  to 
the' eye,  and  render  them  durable.  This  was  the  origin  of 
written  language.  The  elements  of  this  language  are  let- 
ters or  characters,  which,  by  consent  of  men,  and  common 
usage,  are  combined  into  words,  and  made  to  represent  the 
articulate  sounds  uttered  by  the  voice.  These  characters 
being  easily  inscribed  or  engraved  upon  durable  substances, 
as  paper,  parchment,  wood  and  stone,  render  language  per- 
manent, and  capable  of  being  transmitted  from  age  to  age, 
and  of  being  communicated  over  the  habitable  globe.  Of 
this  art,  it  is  not  easy  to  decide  which  deserves  to  be  most 
admired,  the  difficulty,  the  ingenuity,  or  the  usefulness  of 
the*invention. 

OF    GRAMMAR. 

<i  rarrtmar,  as  a  science,  treats  of  the  natural  connection 
between  ideas,  and  words  which  are  the  signs  of  ideas,  and 
develops  tlie  principles  which  are  common  to  all  languages. 
These  principles  are  not  arbitrary,  nor  subject  to  change, 
but  fixed  and  permanent ;  being  founded  on  facts,  and  dis- 
tinctions established  by  nature.  Thus  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  sexes ;  between  things  and  their  qualities ;  be- 
tween the  names  of  substances  and  of  their  actions  or  mo- 
tions :  between  unity  and  plurality  ;  between  the  present, 
past  and  future  time,  and  some  other  distinctions,  are  found- 
ed in  nature,  and  give  rise  to  different  species  of  words,  and 
to  various  inflections  in  all  languages. 

v>The  grammar  of  a  particular  language  is  a  system  of  gen- 
eral  principles,  derived  from  natural  distinctions  of  words 
and  of  particular  rules,  deduced  from  the  customary  forms 
of  speech,  in  the  nation  using  that  language.  These  usages 
are  mostly  arbitrary,  or  of  accidental  origin  ;  but  when  they 
become  common  to  a  nation,  they  are  to  be  considered  as 
established,  and  received  as  rules  of  the  highest  authority. 

A  rule,  therefore,  is  an  established  form  of  construction 
in  a  particular  class  of  w?ords.  Thus  the  usual  addition  of 
5  or  es,  to  a  noun,  to  denote  plurality,  being  a  general  prac- 
tice, constitutes  a  rule. 

An  exception  to  a  rule,  is  the  deviation  of  certain  words 
from  the  common  construction.  Thus  man,  if  regularly 
formed  in  the  plural,  would  be  mans;  but  custom  having 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  7 

established  the  use  of  men  as  its  plural,  the  word  is  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule. 

Grammar  is  commonly  divided  into  four  parts — orthogra- 
phy, etymology,  syntax  and  prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  the  letters,  their  powers  and  com- 
binations in  syllables ;  or,  it  teaches  the  true  manner  of  writ- 
ing words,  called  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  derivation  of  words  from  their 
radicals  or  primitives,  and  of  their  various  inflections  and 
modifications  to  express  person,  number,  case,  sex,  time  and 
mode. 

Syntax  explains  the  true  mode  of  constructing  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  quantity  or  accent  of  syllables  and 
the  laws  of  versification.  ^ 

NOTE. — In  this  compilation,  the  only  subjects  treated  are,  a  part  of 
etymology,  and  syntax  and  prosody. 

OF    LETTERS. 

The  elements,  or  first  principles  of  language,  are  articu- 
late sounds,  and  letters  or  characters,  which  represent  them. 

There  are  in  the  English  language  twenty-six  letters, 
which  represent  sounds  or  articulations  :  A.  a. — B.  b. — 
C.  c.— D.  d.— E.  e.— F.  f.— G.  g.— H.  h.— I.  i.— J.  j.— K.  k. 
_L.  1.— M.  m.— N.  n.— O.  o.— P.  p.— Q.  q.— R.  r.— S.  s.— 
T.  t.— U.  u.— V.  v.— W.  w.— X.  x.— Y.  y.— Z.  z.  Of  these, 
J  and  X  represent  a  combination  of  articulations. 

Letters  are  of  two  kinds — vowels  and  consonants  ;  or, 
more  strictly,  of  three  kinds — vowels,  consonants  and  aspi- 
rates. 

A  vowel  is  a  vocal  or  open  sound ;  or  a  simple  sound, 
uttered  by  opening  the  mouth  in  a  particular  manner.  A 
simple  sound  is  one  which  is  begun  and  continued  at  pleas- 
ure, with  the  same  position  of  the  organs,  as — a,  e,  o,  and 
the  broad  a  or  aw ;  the  Italian  a  as  in  father,  and  oo,  which 
in  English  represents  the  Italian  u  and  French  ou. 

An  articulation  is  the  forming  of  a  joint — a  jointing  or 
closing  of  the  organs  of  speech ;  by  which  the  voice  is  whol- 
ly or  partially  intercepted.* 

A  close  articulation  entirely  and  instantly  interrupts  the 
utterance  of  sound,  as — &,  p,  f,  in  the  syllables,  ek,  ep,  et. 

*  Latin  articulatio,  from  articulus,  a  joint. 


8  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

These  letters  are  therefore  called  pure  mutes.  A  less  close 
articulation  admits  a  small  prolongation  of  sound,  as  6,  d9 
g,  as  in  the  syllables,  eb,  ed,  eg.  These  are  called  impure 
mutes. 

Imperfect  articulations  do  not  completely  interrupt  all 
sound.  Some  of  them  admit  a  kind  of  hum  ;  others  of  a 
hissing  sound  ;  others  of  a  breathing,  which  may  be  contin- 
ued at  pleasure.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following  letters :  ef, 
el,  em,  en,  er,  es,  ez9  esh,  eth.  These  are  therefore  called 
semi-vowels. 

II  is  a  mark  of  breathing,  and  may  be  called  an  aspirate, 

Articulations  or  consonants  precede  or  follow  vowels,  as 
in  at,  go,  blush.  They  therefore  determine  the  manner  of 
beginning  and  ending  vocal  sounds.  But  even  when  they 
produce  no  sound,  they  so  modify  the  manner  of  uttering 
vowels,  as  to  aid  in  forming  distinct  words.  Thus  in  bat, 
gap,  cap,  we  hear  the  same  vowel,  but  the  articulations 
which  precede  or  follow  that  sound,  form  with  it  different 
words,  that  may  be  distinguished  as  far  as  the  voice  can  be 
heard. 

An  articulate  sound  is  properly  a  sound  which  is  pre- 
ceded or  followed  by  a  closing  of  the  organs  ;  but  we  extend 
the  signification  to  sounds  formed  by  organs  capable  of  ar- 
ticulation, that  is,  by  the  human  organs  of  speech. 

The  great  difference  between  men  and  brutes,  in  the  ut- 
terance of  sound  by  the  mouth,  consists  in  the  power  of  ar- 
ticulation in  man,  and  the  entire  want  of  it  in  brutes. 

On  articulation,  therefore,  depends  the  formation  of  sylla- 
bles and  words.  It  is  the  basis  of  human  speech  or  lan- 
guage, and  the  faculty  of  articulation  is  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  and  privilege  of  man. 

All  men,  having  similar  organs  of  speech,  use  nearly  the 
same  articulations.  Hence  the  same  simple  letters,  or  let- 
ters with  the  same  powers,  occur,  with  slight  differences,  in 
all  languages.  The  compound  letters,  or  combinations  of 
sound,  are  subject  to  greater  variety. 

Articulations  formed  by  the  lips  are  called  labial  letters, 
or  labials,  lip-letters,  from  the  Latin  labium,  a  lip.  Such 
are  &,  Z,  m,  p,  v.  Those  formed  by  the  tongue  and  teeth, 
are  called  dental  letters,  or  dentals,  from  the  Latin  dens,  a 
tooth.  Such  are  d,  t,  th,  s  and  z.  The  two  latter  are  also 
denominated  sibilant  letters,  or  sibilants,  from  the  Latin 
sibito,  to  hiss.  Letters  formed  by  the  tongue  and  palate,  are 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  9 

called  palatal  letters,  or  palatals,  as  g,  k,  Z,  r.  The  two 
former,  when  they  represent  a  deep  utterance  of  sound  from 
the  throat,  may  be  called  gutturals. 

When  an  articulation  occasions  a  sound  through  the  nose, 
it  is  called  a  nasal  letter.  Such  are  m,  n,  and  ngy  in  ing. 

J,  in  English,  represents  the  sounds  of  d  and  soft  g.  X 
represents  the  sound  of  k  and  5. 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels,  which  are  so  ra- 
pidly, uttered  in  succession,  as  to  be  considered  as  forming 
one  syllable,  as  oi,  and  oy,  in  voice,  joy. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  a  syllable. 

ETYMOLOGY. CLASSIFICATION    OF   WORDS. 

Words  are  naturally  divided  into  two  CLASSES,  PRIMARY 
and  SECONDARY. 

The  Jirst  class  consists  of  words  which  are  essential  to 
the  language  of  men ;  on  which  other  words  depend,  or  to 
which  they  are  added  as  auxiliaries.  In  this  class  are  in- 
cluded the  Noun  or  Name,  and  the  verb.  These  two  spe- 
cies of  words  are  so  necessary  to  a  communication  of  ideas, 
that  no  complete  sentence  or  proposition  can  be  formed 
without  the  use  of  both,  unless  when  a  substitute  is  used  for 
a  name.  Thus,  the  sun  shines,  is  a  complete  sentence,  con- 
taining a  name  and  a  verb  ;  but  remove  either  of  them,  and 
the  proposition  is  destroyed.  From  the  importance  of  these 
words,  they  are  here  denominated  Primary,  or  the  PRIMARY 
PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  second  class  consists  of  words  of  secondary  or  subor- 
dinate use,  or  of  such  as  are  dependent  on  other  words  in 
construction.  Of  these  there  are  several  species. 

1st.  Words  which  supply  the  place  of  other  words  and  of 
sentences,  which  are  here  called  pronouns  or  substitutes. 

2d.  Words  which  express  the  qualities  of  things,  and 
which  therefore  are  attached  to  the  names  of  those  things. 
These  are  here  called  adjectives,  attributes  or  attributives. 
These  are  primary  words  in  point  of  importance  ;  but  be- 
ing necessarily  dependent  on  other  words  in  construction, 
they  are  here  ranked  with  the  secondary. 

3d.  Words  which  modify  the  sense  of  other  words  by  ex- 
pressing the  manner  of  action,  or  degree  of  quality.  These 
are  here  called  adverbs  or  modifiers. 


10  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

4th.  Words  which  are  placed  before  other  words,  and 
show  the  relation  between  them  and  those  which  precede. 
These  are  called  prepositions. 

6th.  Words  which  join  together  the  parts  of  a  sentence  or 
of  a  discourse,  in  a  regular  construction.  These  are  called 
connectives  or  conjunctions. 

These  five  species  of  subordinate  or  dependent  words  are 
denominated  secondary. 

There  are  therefore  two  classes  of  words  containing  seven 
species  or  parts  of  speech.  The  first  class  contains  two 
species. 

I.  Nouns  or  Names  which  are  the   signs  of  our  ideas  of 
whatever  we  conceive  to  exist,  material  and  immaterial. 

II.  Verbs    which  express    affirmation,   motion,    action  or 
being. 

The  second  class  contains  five  species. 

III.  Pronouns    or  Substitutes,  words   which    are  used  in 
the  place  of  other  words  or  of  sentences. 

IV.  Adjectives  or  Attributes,  which  express  the  qualities 
of  things,  and  qualify  the  action  of  verbs,  or  the  sense  of 
other  attributes  and  modifiers. 

V.  Adverbs    or    Modifiers,    which   qualify   the   action  of 
verbs,  and  the'  sense  of  attributes. 

VI.  Prepositions,  which  show  the  relation  between  words, 
and  also  the  condition  of  things. 

VII.  Connectives  or    Conjunctions,  which  unite  sentences 
in  construction. 

NOTE. — Participles  are?  by  some  grammarians,  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinct part  of  speech  ;  and  they  certainly  have  some  claims  to  be  so  con- 
sidered ;  but  I  have  chose  to  follow  the  common  arrangement  which  is 
attended  with  no  inconvenience. 

NOUNS    OR    NAMES. 

A  noun  or  name  is  that  by  which  a  thing  is  called ;  and 
it  expresses  the  idea  of  that  which  exists,  material  or  imma- 
terial.— Of  material  substances,  as  man,  horse,  tree,  table — 
of  immaterial  things,  as  faith,  hope,  love.  These  and  simi- 
lar words  are,  by  customary  use,  made  the  names  of  things 
which  exist,  or  the  symbols  of  ideas,  which  they  express 
without  the  help  of  any  other  word. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  11 


DIVISION    OF    NAMES    OR    NOUNS. 

Names  are  of  two  kinds  ;  common,  or  those  which  repre- 
sent the  idea  of  a  whole  kind  or  species  ;  and  proper  or  ap- 
propriate, which  denote  individuals.  Thus  animal  is  a 
name  common  to  all  beings,  having  organized  bodies  and 
endowed  with  life,  digestion,  and  spontaneous  motion. 
Plant  and  vegetable  are  names  of  all  beings  which  have  or- 
ganized bodies  and  life,  without  the  power  of  spontaneous 
motion.  Fowl  is  the  common  name  of  all  feathered  animals 
which  fly ;  Jish,  of  animals  which  live  wholly  in  water. 

On  the  other  hand,  Thomas,  John,  William,  are  proper 
or  appropriate  names,  each  denoting  an  individual  of  which 
there  is  no  species  or  kind.  London,  Paris,  Amsterdam, 
Rhine,  Po,  Danube,  Massachusetts,  Hudson,  Patowmac,  are 
also  proper  names,  being  appropriate  to  individual  things. 

Proper  names  however  become  common  when  they  com- 
prehend two  or  more  individuals  ;  as,  the  Capets,  the  Smiths, 
the  Fletchers — "  Two  Roberts  there  the  pagan  force  defy'd." 

Hook's  Tasso,  b.  20. 

LIMITATION    OF    NAMES. 

Proper  names  are  sufficiently  definite  without  the  aid  of 
another  word  to  limit  their  meaning,  as  Boston,  Baltimore, 
Savannah.  Yet  when  certain  individuals  have  a  common 
character,  or  predominant  qualities  which  create  a  simili- 
tude between  them,  this  common  character  becomes  in  the 
mind  a  species,  and  the  proper  name  of  an  individual  pos- 
sessing this  character,  admits  of  the  definitives  and  of  plural 
number,  like  a  common  name.  Thus  a  conspirator  is  called 
a  Catiline  ;  and  numbers  of  them  Catilines  or  the  Catilines 
of  their  country.  A  distinguished  general  is  called  a  Cesar ; 
an  eminent  orator  the  Cicero  of  his  age. 

But  names,  which  are  common  to  a  whole  kind  or  species, 
require  often  to  be  limited  to  an  individual  or  a  certain  num- 
ber of  individuals  of  the  kind  or  species.  For  this  purpose 
the  English  language  is  furnished  with  a  number  of  words, 
as  an,  or  a,  the,  this,  that,  these,  those,  and  a  few  others, 
which  define  the  extent  of  the  signification  of  common 
names,  or  point  to  the  particular  things  mentioned.  These 
are  all  adjectives  or  attributes,  having  a  dependence  on  some 
noun  expressed  or  implied ;  but  some  of  them  are  used  also 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

as  substitutes.  Of  these  an  or  a  and  the  are  never  employ- 
ed  as  substitutes,  but  are  constantly  attached  to  some  name 
or  an  equivalent  word;  and  from  their  peculiar  use,  have 
obtained  the  distinctive  appellation  of  articles.  But  defini- 
five  is  a  more  significant  and  appropriate  term  ;  as  they  are 
definitive  attributes,  and  have,  grammatically  considered,  the 
like  use  as  this,  that,  some,  none,  any. 

An  is  simply  the  Saxon  one,  or  an,  one.  It  was  formerly 
written  an  before  a  consonant  ;*  but  for  the  ease  and  rapidi- 
ty of  utterance,  it  is  written  and  pronounced  a  before  a  con- 
sonant, and  before  a  vowel  which  includes  the  sound  of  aeon- 
sonant  ;  as,  a  pen,  a  union  :  also  before  h  aspirate  ;  as,  a  house. 
It  retains  its  primitive  orthography  an,  before  a  vowel,  and 
a  silent  consonant ;  as,  an  eagle,  an  hour. 

The  is  used  before  vowels  and  consonants ;  but  in  poetry, 
e,  for  the  sake  of  measure,  may  be  omitted,  and  th  made  to 
coalesce  with  a  succeeding  vowel;  as,  " th'embroidered  vest." 

RULE  I. 

A  noun  or  name,  without  a  preceding  definitive,  is  used 
either  in  an  unlimited  sense,  extending  to  the  whole  species, 
or,  in  an  indefinite  sense,  denoting  a  number  or  quantity,  but 
not  the  whole. 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man."  Pope. 

Here  man  comprehends  the  whole  species. 

"  In  the  first  place,  woman  has,  in  general,  much  stronger 
propensity  than  man  to  the  perfect  discharge  of  parental 
duties." — Life  of  Cowper. 

Here  woman  and  man  comprehend  each  the  whole  spe- 
cies of  its  sex. 

"  From  whom  also  I  received  letters  to  the  brethren." — 
Acts,  xxii.  5. 

"  The  men  were  overwhelmed  by  the  waves,  and  absorb- 
ed by  the  eddies.  Horses,  baggage,  and  dead  bodies,  were 
seen  floating  together." 

In  these  passages,  letters,  horses,  and  dead  bodies,  with 
out  a  definitive,  denote  some,  an  indefinite  number,  but  no 
all.  So  in  the  following  sentence  : 

A  house  is  consumed  byjire—fire  is  extinguished  by  water. 

*  "  And  thses  geares  woBrun  ofslegene  IX  eorlas  and  an  cyning.'  And 
this  year  were  slain  nine  earls  and  one  king. — Saxon  Chron.  p.  82. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

NOTE. — The  rule  laid  down  by  Lowth,  and  transcribed  implicitly  by 
his  followers,  is  general.  "  A  substantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it, 
is  taken  in  its  widest  sense;  thus  man  means  all  mankind"  The  ex- 
amples already  given  prove  the  inaccuracy  of  the  rule.  But  let  it  be 
tried  by  other  examples. 

"  There  are  fishes  that  have  wings,  and  are  not  strangers  to  the  airy 
regions." — LOCKE,  b.  3.  ch.  6.  12.  If  the  rule  is  just,  thai  fishes  is  to  be 
"  taken  in  its  widest  sense,"  then  all  fishes  have  wings  ! 

"  When  ye  shall  see  Jerusalem  compassed  with  armies' ' — What !  all 
armies  ?  "  There  shall  be  signs  in  the  sun" — What !  all  signs  ?  "  JMz- 
tion  shall  rise  against  nation" — What!  every  nation?  How  the  rule 
vanishes  before  the  test ! 

RULE  II. 

The  definitive  an  or  a,  being  merely  one,  in  its  English 
orthography,  and  precisely  synonymous  with  it,  limits  a 
common  name  to  an  individual  of  the  species — its  sole  use 
is  to  express  unity,  and  with  respect  to  number,  is  the  most 
definite  word  imaginable — as  an  ounce,  a  church,  a  ship, 
that  is,  one  ship,  one  church.  It  is  used  before  a  name, 
which  is  indefinite,  or  applicable  to  any  one  of  a  species  ;  as, 

"  He  bore  him  in  the  thickest  troop, 
As  doth  a  lion  in  a  herd  of  neat."  Shakspeare. 

Here  a  limits  the  sense  of  the  word  lion,  and  that  of  herd  to 
one — but  does  not  specify  the  particular  one — "  As  any  lion 
does  or  would  do  in  any  herd." 

This  definitive  is  used  also  before  names  which  are  definite 
and  as  specific  as  possible ;  as,  "  Solomon  built  a  temple." 
"  The  Lord  God  planted  a  garden  eastward  in  Eden."  Lon- 
don is  a  great  commercial  city.  A  decisive  battle  was  fought 
at  Marengo.  The  English  obtained  a  signal  naval  victory 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile.* 


*  "  A  respects  the  primary  perception  and  denotes  individuals  as  un- 
known— the  respects  our  secondary  perceptions  and  denotes  individuals 
tat  known.  Cleaves  the  individuals  unascertained,  whereas  the  article 
the  ascertains  the  individual  also." — Harris'  Hermes,  215,  217. 

"A  has  an  indefinite  signification  and  means  one,  with  some  reference 
to  more." — Johnson's  Diet.  Grammar. 

"  A  is  used  in  a  vague  sense  to  point  out  one  single  thing  of  the  kind, 
in  other  respects  indeterminate" — "  a  determines  it  to  be  one,  single 
thing  of  the  kind,  leaving  it  still  uncertain  which." 

Lowth' s  Introduction^ 

But  let  us  try  this  rule.  Harris  wrote,  or  rather  compiled  from  Greek 
grammarians,  "  A  Philosophical  Inquiry  concerning  Universal  Gram 


14  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

NOTE. — When  the  sense  of  words  is  sufficiently  certain,  by  the  con- 
struction, the  definitive  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  Duty  to  your  majesty,  and 
regard  for  the  preservation  of  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  require  us  to 
entreat  your  royal  attention." 

It  is  also  omitted  before  names  whose  signification  is  general,  and  re- 
quires no  limitation — as,  "  wisdom  is  justified  of  her  children" — "  anger 
resteth  in  the  bosom  of  fools." 

The  definitive  a  is  used  before  plural  names,  preceded  by 
few  or  many — as,  a  few  days,  a  great  many  persons.*  It  is 
also  used  before  any  collective  word,  as,  a  dozen,  a  hundred, 
even  when  such  words  are  attached  to  plural  nouns  ;  as,  a 
hundred  years. 

It  is  remarkable  that  a  never  precedes  many  without  the 
intervention  of  great  between  them — but  follows  many, 
standing  between  this  word  and  a  name — and  what  is  equally 


mar." — Johnson  compiled  "  A  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language." — 
Lowth  wrote  "  Jl  Short  Introduction  to  English  Grammar." — David  left  a 
flourishing  kingdom  to  Solomon.  Now  I  request  some  of  the  gentlemen, 
who  teach  the  rules  of  these  Grammars,  to  inform  the  world  whether  a, 
in  the  passages  recited,  denotes  one  thing  of  the  kind,  in  other  respects 
indeterminate. 

Chares  erected  a  huge  Colossus  at  Rhodes — Romulus  built  a  city  in 
•Italy  and  called  it  Ro7ne — Great  Britain  has  a  navy  superior  to  any  on 
the  ocean — Love  to  God  is  an  indispensable  duty — Virgil  composed  an 
?pic  poem — The  Earl  of  Chatham  was  an  eminent  statesman — Oxygen 
is  a  substance  which  forms  acids — the  carbonic  acid  is  a  combination  of 
oxygen  and  carbon — The  air  is  an  invisible  elastic  fluid — Lisbon  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  1755 — that  is,  according  to  our  grammars, 
any  earthquake,  uncertain  which. 

The  history  of  this  word  is  briefly  this.  An  and  one  are  the  same 
word — an,  the  Saxon  or  English  orthography,  and  one  a  corruption  of 
the  French  un  or  vne.  The  Greek  en,  the  Latin  vnus,  that  is,  run  with 
the  usual  ending  of  adjectives,  and  the  Saxori  an  or  ane,  are  mere  dia- 
'lectical  differences  of  orthography,  as  are  the  German  cin  and  the  Dutch 
een.  Before  the  Conquest,  an  was  used  in  computation  or  numbering — 
an,  twa,  threo — one,  two,  three,  &c. ;  and  the  n  was  used  before  articu- 
lations, as  well  as  before  vowels — "  Ac  him  saed  hyra  an" — But  to  him 
said  one  of  them. — Alfred  Orosius,  lib.  6.  30.  "  An  cyning" — one  king. 
Sax.  Chron.  p.  82.  This  word  was  also  varied  to  express  case  and  gen- 
der, like  the  Latin  unus.  "  And  thsps  ymb  anne  monath" — And  within 
this  one  month. — Sax.  Chron.  $2.  "  The  on  tham  anum  scipe  waceron" 
— Who  were  in  that  one  ship. — ibm.  98.  An  therefore  is  the  original 
English  adjective  or  ordinal  number  one  ;  and  was  never  written  a  until 
after  the  Conquest. 

*  The  origin  of  this  use  of  a  before  many  is  to  be  sought  in  the  prim- 
itive character  of  many,  which  was  a  noun  in  the  Gothic  and  Saxon,  sy- 
nonymous with  multitude.  A  many  was  therefore  correct.  Its  use  as 
an  attribute  is  secondary  or  derivative  j  but  this  use  carries  with  it  the 
definitive  at  in  anomalous  phrases. 


OP  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  15 

ringular,  many,  the  very  essence  of  which  is  to  mark  plu- 
rality, will,  with  a  intervening,  agree  with  a  name  in  the 
singular  number ;  as, 

"  Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene."  Gray. 

"  Where  many  a  rose  bud  rears  its  blushing  head." 

Beattie. 
RULE  III. 

The  definitive  the  is  employed  before  names,  to  limit  their 
signification  to  one  or  more  specific  things  of  the  kind,  dis- 
criminated from  others  of  the  same  kind.  Hence  the  per- 
son or  thing  is  understood  by  the  reader  or  hearer ;  as,  the 
twelve  Apostles,  the  laws  of  morality,  the  rules  of  good 
breeding. 

This  definitive  is  also  used  with  names  of  things  which 
exist  alone,  or  which  we  consider  as  single  ;  as,  the  Jews, 
the  Sun,  the  Globe,  the  Ocean ;  and  also  before  words  when 
used  by  way  of  distinction ;  as,  the  Church,  the  Temple. 

RULE  IV. 

The  is  used  rhetorically  before  a  name  in  the  singular 
number,  to  denote  the  whole  species,  or  an  indefinite  nun> 
ber;  as,  "  the  Jig-tree  putteth  forth  her  green  figs."— SoL 
Songs.  ,  , 

"  The  almond-tree  shall  flourish,  and  the  grasshopper  shall 
be  a  burden." — "  Or  ever  the  silver  cord  shall  be  loosed— 
or  the  golden  bowl  be  broken,"  &c. — Ecclesiastes. 

"  There  loaded  camels  move  in  solemn  state, 
And  the  huge  elephant3 s  unwieldy  weight." 

Hoole's  Tasso,  b.  15. 

"  For  here  the  splendid  treasures  of  the  mine, 
And  richest  offspring  of  thejield  combine." 

Lusiad,  2. 

"  The  Christian,  who,  with  pious  horror,  avoided  the  abom- 
inations of  the  circus  or  the  theatre,  found  himself  encom- 
passed with  infernal  snares,"  &c. — Gib.  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  15. 

"  The  heart  likes  naturally  to  be  moved  and  affected." — 
Campbell's  Rhet.  ch.  2. 

NOTE  1. — This  definitive  is  also  used  before  names  employed  figura- 
tively in  a  general  sense  ;  as, 

"  His  mates  their  safety  to  the  waves  consign."  Lusiad,  2. 


16  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

Here  waves  cannot  be  understood  of  any  particular  waves ;  but  the 
word  is  a  metaphor  for  a  particular  thing,  the  ocean. 

In  addresses  and  exclamations,  the  definitive  may  be,  and  usually  is, 
omitted  ;  as,  "  Sink  down,  ye  mountains,  and,  ye  valleys,  rise." 

"  Be  smooth,  ye  rocks ;  ye  rapid  floods,  give  way."          Pope,  Mes. 
"  Gran  ville  commands ;  your  aid,  O  Muses,  bring."     Wind.  Forest. 

NOTE  2. — The  definitive  the  is  used  before  an  attribute,  which  is  se- 
lected from  others  belonging  to  the  same  object ;  as, "  The  very  frame  of 
spirit  proper  for  being  diverted  with  the  laughable  in  objects,  is  so  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  is  necessary  for  philosophizing  on  them." — 
Ctvmplell,  Rhet.  1.  2, 

NUMBER. 

As  men  have  occasion  to  speak  of  a  single  object,  or  of 
two  or  more  individuals  of  the  same  kind,  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  vary  the  noun  or  name,  and  usually  the  termi- 
nation, to  distinguish  plurality  from  unity.  The  different 
forms  of  words  to  express  one  or  more  are  called  in  gram- 
mar, numbers ;  of  which  there  are,  in  English,  two,  the  sin- 
gular and  the  plural.  The  singular  denotes  an  individual, 
or  a  collection  of  individuals  united  in  a  body ;  as,  a  man,  a 
ship,  an  office,  a  company,  a  society,  a  dozen.  The  plural 
denotes  two  or  more  individuals,  not  considered  as  a  collec- 
tive body  ;  as,  men,  ships,  offices,  companies,  societies.  The 
plural  number  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  5  or  es  to  the 
singular. 

RULE  1.  When  the  terminating  letter  of  a  noun  will  ad- 
mit the  sound  of  s  to  coalesce  with  the  name  or  the  last  syl- 
lable of  it,  5  only  is  added  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  sea,  seas ; 
hand,  hands ;  pen,  pens ;  grape,  grapes ;  vale,  vales ;  vow, 
vows. 

2.  When  the  letter  s  does  not  combine  in  sound  with  the 
word  or  last  syllable  of  it,  the  addition  of  s  increases  the 
number   of    syllables;    as,   house,    houses;    grace,   graces; 
page,  pages  ;  rose,  roses ;  voice,  voices  ;  maze,  mazes. 

3.  When  the  name  ends  in  x,  ss,  sh,  or  ch  with  its  English 
sound,  the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  es  to   the  singular  ; 
for  a  single  5  after  those  letters  cannot  be  pronounced  ;  as, 
fox,  foxes  ;  glass,  glasses  ;  brush,  brushes;  church,  churches. 
But  after  ch  with  its  Greek  sound,  like  k,  the  plural  is  form- 
ed by  s  only ;  as  monarch,  monarchs. 

4.  When  a  name  ends  with  y  after  a  consonant,  the  plu- 
ral is  formed  by  dropping  y  and  adding  ies ;  as,  vanity,  van- 
ities.    Alkali  has  a  regular  plural,  alkalies. 


OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


17 


But  after  ay,  cy,  and  oy,  s  only  is  added ;  as  delay,  delays ; 
valley,  valleys ;  joy,  joys  ;  money,  moneys. 

NOTE  1.— We  sometimes  see  valley,  chimney,  money,  journey,  and  a 
few  others,  with  like  terminations,  written  in  the  plural  with  ies — val- 
lies,  chimnies,  &c.  But  this  irregularity  is  not  to  be  vindicated.  Either 
the  singular  number  should  be  written  vally,  or  the  plural  valleys.  The 
latter  is  preferable.* 

NOTE  2. — A  few  English  nouns  deviate  from  the  foregoing  rules  in 
the  formation  of  the  plural  number : — 

CLASS  1.  In  some  names,  fm  the  singular  is,  for  the  con- 
venience, of  utterance,  changed  into  v  ;  as, 


life         lives 
knife      knives 
wife       wives 
leaf       leaves 
calf        calves 

self        selves 
half       halves 
beef       beeves 
elf         elves 
loaf       loaves 

sheaf     sheaves 
shelf      shelves 
wolf       wolves 
wharf     wharves 
thief       thieves 

CLASS  2.  The  second  class  consists  of  words  which  are 
used  in  both  numbers,  with  plurals  irregularly  formed ;  as, 


child 
foot 

children 
feet 

hypothesis 
brother 

hypotheses 
brothers  or  brethren 

tooth 
man 

teeth 
men 

penny 
die 

pennies  or  pence 
dies  or  dice 

woman 

women 

pea 

peas  or  pease 

ox 

oxen 

criterion 

criterions  or  criteria 

louse 

lice 

focus 

focuses  or  foci 

goose 
beau 

geese 
beaux 

radius 
index 

radiuses  or  radii 
indexes  or  indices 

thesis 

theses 

calx 

calxes  or  calces 

emphasis 
antithesis 

emphases 
antitheses 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

Pennies  is  used  for  real  coins ;  pence  for  their  value  in 
computation. — Dies  denotes  stamps  for  coining  ;  dice,  pieces 
used  in  games. — Peas  denotes  the  seeds  as  distinct  objects  ; 
pease  the  seeds  in  a  mass. — Brothers  is  the  plural  used  in 


*  The  change  of  y  into  ies  to  form  the  plural  number,  may  seem  to  a 
foreigner  an  odd  irregularity  ;  but  the  cause  is  very  obvious,  Formerly 
the  singular  number  of  this  class  of  words  ended  with  ie;  as,  glorie,  van^ 
itie,  energie,  and  the  addition  of  s  made  the  plurals/ones.  But  whether 
from  caprice,  negligence,  or  a  desire  to  simplify  the  orthography,  the 
termination  ie  was  laid  aside  for  y  in  the  singular,  while  the  old  plural  ies 
was  retained.  A  strange  inconsistency,  but  by  no  means  the  only  one 
which  the  progress  of  our  language  exhibits. 


18  AN   IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

common  discourse  ;  brethren,  in  the  scripture  style,  but  is 
not  restricted  to  it. 

Cherubim  and  seraphim  are  real  Hebrew  plurals ;  but 
such  is  the  propensity  in  men  to  form  regular  inflections  in 
language,  that  these  words  are  used  as  in  the  singular,  with 
regular  plurals,  cherubims,  seraphims.  In  like  manner,  the 
Hebrew  singulars,  cherub  and  seraph,  have  obtained  regular 
plurals. 

The  influence  of  this  principle  is  very  obvious  in  other 
foreign  words,  which  the  sciences  have  enlisted  into  our  ser- 
vice;  as  may  be  observed  in  the  words  radius,  focus,  index, 
&/c.  which  now  begin  to  be  used  with  regular  English  plural 
terminations.  This  tendency  to  regularity  is,  by  all  means, 
to  be  encouraged ;  for  a  prime  excellence  in  language  is  the 
uniformity  of  its  inflections.  The  facts  here  stated  will  be 
evinced  by  a  few  authorities. 

"  Vesiculated  corallines  are  found  adhering  to  rocks, 
shells  zndfucuses." — Encyc.  art.  Corallines. 

"  Many  fetuses  are  deficient  at  the  extremities." — Dar. 
Zoon.  Sect.  1,  3,  9. 

"  Five  hundred  denariuses." — Baker's  Livy,  4.  491. 

"  The  radiations  of  that  tree  and  its  fruit,  the  principal  fo~ 
cuses  of  which  are  in  the  Moldavia  islands." — Hunter's  St. 
Pierre,  vol.  3. 

"  The  reduction  of  metallic  calxes  into  metals." — Ency. 
art.  Metallurgy. 

See  also  Mediums,  Campbell's  Rhetoric,  1,  150;  Calyxes, 
Darwin's  Zoon.  1  74 ;  Caudexes,  Phytologia,  2,  3  ;  Irises, 
Zoon.  1.  444 ;  Reguluses  and  residuums. — Encyc.  art. 
Metal. 

In  authorities  equally  respectable,  we  find  stamens,  stra- 
tums,  funguses  ;  and  in  pursuance  of  the  principle,  we 
may  expect  to  see  lamens  for  laminae  ;  lamels  for  lamellae  ; 
baryte  for  barytes  ;  pyrite  for  pyrites ;  strontite  for  stron- 
tites ;  stalactites  for  the  plural  stalactites.  These  reforms 
are  necessary  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  the  singular  from 
the  plural  number. 

CLASS  3.  The  third  class  of  irregulars  consists  of  such 
as  have  no  plural  termination ;  some  of  which  represent 
ideas  of  things  which  do  not  admit  of  plurality ;  as,  rye, 
barley,  flax,  hemp,  flour,  sloth,  pride,  pitch,  and  the  names 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  19 

of  metals,  gold,  silver,  tin,  zink,  antimony,  lead,  bismuth, 
quicksilver.  When,  in  the  progress  of  improvement,  any 
thing,  considered  as  not  susceptible  of  plurality,  is  found  to 
have  varieties,  which  are  distinguishable,  this  distinction 
gives  rise  to  a  plural  of  the  term.  Thus,  in  early  ages  our 
ancestors  took  no  notice  of  different  varieties  of  wheat,  and 
the  term  had  no  plural.  But  modern  improvements  in  ag- 
riculture have  recognized  varieties  of  this  grain,  which  have 
given  the  name  a  plural  form.  The  same  remark  is  appli- 
cable to  fern,  clay,  marl,  sugar,  cotton,  &,c.  which  have  plu- 
rals, formerly  unknown.  Other  words  may  hereafter  under- 
go a  similar  change. 

Other  words  of  this  class  denote  plurality,  without  a  plu- 
ral termination ;  as,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  kine,  deer,  hose ; 
trout,  salmon,  carp,  perch,  and  many  other  names  of  fish. 
Pish  has  a  plural,  but  is  used  in  the  plural  sense  without  the 
termination ;  as, 

"  We  are  to  blame  for  eating  these  Jish." 

Anacharsis,  6.  272. 

"  The  Jish  reposed  in  seas  and  crystal  floods, 
The  beasts  retired  in  covert  of  the  woods." 

Hook,  T.  2.  726. 

Cannon,  shot  and  sail,  are  used  in  a  plural  sense ;  as, 

"  One  hundred  cannon  were  landed  from  the  fleet." 

Burchett,  Naval  Hist.  732. 

"  Several  shot  being  fired." — Ibm.  455. 
"Several  sail  of  ships." — Ibm.  426. 

In  the  sense  in  which  these  words  are  here  used,  they 
hardly  admit  of  a  plural  ending. 

Under  this  class  may  be  noticed  a  number  of  words,  ex- 
pressing time,  distance,  measure,  weight  and  number,  which, 
though  admitting  a  plural  termination,  are  often,  not  to  say 
generally,  used  without  that  termination,  even  when  used 
with  attributes  of  plurality  ;  such  are  the  names  in  these  ex- 
pressions, two  year,  five  mile,  ten  foot,  seven  pound,  three 
tun,  hundred,  thousand,  or  million,  five  bushel,  twenty 
weight,  &c.  Yet  the  most  unlettered  people  never  say,  two 
minute,  three  hour,  five  day,  or  week,  or  month ;  nor  two 
inch,  yard  or  league ;  nor  three  ounce,  grain,  dram,  or  peck. 


20 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


We  observe  this  practice  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle.  "  He 
heold  that  Arcebisceop-rice  18  year." — p.  59.  He  held  that 
archbishopric  eighteen  year.'  In  that  work,  winter  is  used 
in  the  same  manner  ;  forty-one  winter — p.  41.  Yet  year 
and  winter  had,  in- the  Saxon,  plural  terminations.  But  this 
use  is  considered  as  vulgar. 

A  like  singularity  is  observable  in  the  Latin  language. 
"  Tritici  quadraginta  millia  modium." — Liv.  lib.  26.  47.  For- 
ty thousand  modium  of  wheat.  "  Quatuor  millia  pondo  auri," 
four  thousand  pound  of  gold. — Ibm.  27.  10. 

Here  we  see  the  origin  of  our  pound.  Originally  it  was 
merely  weight — four  thousand"  of  gold  by  weight.  From 
denoting  weight  generally,  pondo  became  the  term  for  a  cer- 
tain division  or  quantity ;  retaining  however  its  signification 
of  unity,  and  becoming  an  indeclinable  in  Latin.  Twenty 
pound  then,  in  strictness,  is  twenty  divisions  by  weight ;  or, 
as  we  say,  with  a  like  abbreviation,  twenty  weight. 

The  words  horse,  foot  and  infantry,  comprehending  bod- 
ies of  soldiers,  are  used  as  plural  nouns,  and  followed  by 
verbs  in  the  plural.  Cavalry  is  sometimes  used  in  like  man- 
ner. 

CLASS  4.  The  fourth  class  of  irregular  nouns  consists  of 
words  which  have  the  plural  termination  only.  Some  of 
these,  denoting  plurality,  are  always  joined  with  verbs  in  the 
plural ;  as  the  following  : 

Annals  -drawers  tees  customs 

archives  downs  lungs  shears 

ashes  dregs  matins  scissors 

assets  embers  mallows  shambled 

bitters  entrails  orgies  tidings 

bowels  fetters  nippers  tongs 

compasses  filings  pincers  or  thanks 

clothes  goods  pinchers  vespers 

calends  hatches  pleiads  vitals 

breeches  ides  snuffers  victuals 

Letters,  in  the  sense  of  literature,  may  be  added  to  the 
foregoing  list.  Manners,  in  the  sense  of  behavior,  is  also 
plural. 

Other  words  of  this  class,  though  ending  in  s,  are  used 
either  wholly  in  the  singular  number,  or  in  the  one  or  the 
other,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  21 

Amends  wages  conies  economics 

alms  billiards  catoptrics  mathematics 

bellows  fives  dioptrics  mechanics 

gallows  sessions  acoustics  hydraulics 

odds  measles  pneumatics  hydrostatics 

means  hysterics  statics  analytics 

pains  physics  statistics  politics 

news  ethics  spherics 

riches  optics  tactics 

Of  these,  pains,  riches,  and  wages*  are  more  usually  con- 
sidered as  plural — news  is  always  singular — odds  and  means 
are  either  singular  or  plural — the  others  are  more  strictly 
singular  ;  for  measles  is  the  name  of  a  disease,  and,  in  strict- 
ness, no  more  plural  than  gout  or  fever.  Small  pox,  for 
pocks,  is  sometimes  considered  as  a  plural,  but  it  ought  to 
oe  used  as  singular.  Billiards  has  the  sense  of  game,  con- 
taining unity  of  idea ;  and  ethics,  physics  and  other  similar 
names,  comprehending  each  the  whole  system  of  a  particu- 
lar science,  do  not  convey  the  ideas  of  parts  or  particular 
branches,  but  of  a  whole  collectively,  a  unity,  and  hence 
seem  to  be  treated  as  words  belonging  to  the  singular  num- 
ber. 

Authorities. 

Pre-eminent  by  so  much  odds. — Milt.  P.  L.  4.  474. 

With  every  odds  thy  prowess  I  defy. — Hoole,  Tas.  6.  19,  40. 

Where  the  odds  in  considerable. — Camp.  Rhet.  ch.  5. 

The  wages  of  sin  is  death. — Bible. 

Much  pains  has  been  taken. — Enjield,  Hist.  Phil.  ch.  2. 

Let  a  gallows  be  made  of  fifty  cubits  high. — Bible. 

Here  he  erected  a  fort  and  a  gallows. — Lusiad,  1.  134. 

The  riches  we  had  in  England  was  the  slow  result  of  long 
industry  and  wisdom,  and  is  to  be  regained,  &,c. — Davenant, 
2.  12. 

Mathematics  informs  us. — Encyc.  art.  Strength  of  Mate- 
rials. 

Politics  is  the  art  of  producing  individual  good  by  gen- 
eral measures. — Beddoes'  Hygeia,  2.  79. 

Politics  contains  two  parts. — Locke,  vol.  2.  408. 

Locke  however  uses  a  plural  verb  with  ethics.  "  The 
ideas  that  ethics  are  conversant  about." — B.  4.  12.  8. 

*  Originally  wagis,  and  really  singular. 


XX  AN   IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

^  Pains,  when   preceded   by  WMC/J,  should  always  have  a 
singular  verb. 

Means  is  so  generally  used  in  either  number,  (every  means, 
all  means,  this  means,  and  these  means,)  that  authorities  in 
support  of  the  usage  are  deemed  superfluous. 

GENDER. 

Gender,  in  grammar,  is  a  difference  of  termination,  to  ex- 
press distinction  of  sex. 

There  being  two  sexes,  male  and  female,  words  which 
denote  males  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender ;  those 
which  denote  females,  of  feminine  gender.  Words  ex- 
pressing things  without  sex,  are  said  to  be  of  neuter  gender. 
There  are  therefore  but  two  genders ;  yet  for  convenience, 
the  neuter  is  classed  with  the  genders  ;  and  we  say  there  are 
three,  the  masculine,  feminine  and  neuter.  The  English 
modes  of  distinguishing  sex  are  these  : 

1.  The  regular  termination  of  the  feminine  gender  is  ess ; 
which  is  added  to  the  name  of  the  masculine  ;  as,  lion,  lion- 
ess. But  when  the  word  ends  in  or,  the  feminine  is  formed 
by  retrenching  a  vowel,  and  blending  two  syllables  into  6*ne  ; 
as,  actor,  actress.  In  a  few  words,  the  feminine  gender  is 
represented  by  ix ;  as,  testatrix,  from  testator  ;  and  a  few  oth- 
ers are  irregular.  The  following  are  most  of  the  words 
which  have  a  distinct  termination  for  the  feminine  gender  : 


Actor 

actress 

deacon 

deaconess 

abbot 

abbess 

duke 

duchess 

adulterer 

adultress 

embassador 

embassadress 

baron 

baroness 

emperor 

empress 

benefactor 

benefactress 

tiger 

tigress 

governor 
hero 

governess 
heroine 

songster 
seanister 

songstress 
seamstress 

heir 

heiress 

viscount 

viscountess 

peer 

priest 

peeress 
priestess 

jew 
lion 

Jewess 
lioness 

poet 

poetess 

master 

mistress 

prince 

princess 

marquis 

marchioness 

prophet 

prophetess 

patron 

patroness 

shepherd 

shepherdess 

protector 

protectress 

sorcerer 

sorceress 

executor 

executrix 

tutor 

tutoress 

testator 

testatrix 

instructor 

instructress 

elector 

electress 

traitor 

traitress 

administrator 

administratrix 

count 

countess 

2.  In  many  instances,  animals,  with  which  we  have  most 
frequent  occasions  to  be  conversant,  have  different  words  to 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  23 

express  the  different  sexes ;  as,  man  and  woman ;  brother 
and  sister ;  uncle  and  aunt  ;  son  and  daughter ;  boy  and 
girl ;  father  and  mother  ;  horse  and  mare  ;  bull  and  cow. 

Man  however  is  a  general  term  for  the  whole  race  of 
mankind ;  so  also,  horse  comprehends  the  whole  species. 
A  law  to  restrain  every  man  from  an  offence  would  compre- 
hend women  and  boys ;  and  a  law  to  punish  a  trespass  com- 
mitted by  any  horse,  would  comprehend  all  mares  and  colts. 
In  like  manner,  goose,  though  originally  the  name  of  the  fe- 
male, is  used  generally  for  the  whole  species ;  as  is  the  plural 
tjcesc. 

3.  When  words  have  no  distinct  termination  for  the  female 
sex,  the  sexes  are  distinguished  by  prefixing  some  word  indi- 
cating sex ;  as,  a  male  rabbit,  a  female  opossum ;  a  he  goat, 
a  she  goat ;  a  man  servant,  a  maid  servant ;  a  male  coquet ;  a 
female  warrior  ;  a  cock-sparrow,  a  hen-sparrow. 

4.  In  all  cases,  when  the  sex  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  a 
separate  word,  names  may  be  used  to  denote  females  with- 
out a  distinct  termination.     Thus,  although  females  are  rare- 
ly soldiers,  sailors,  philosophers,  mathematicians,  or  chimists, 
and  we  seldom  have  occasion  to  say,  she  is  a  soldier,  or  an 
astronomer;    yet   there  is  not   the  least  impropriety  in  the 
application  of  these  names  to  females,  when  they  possess  the 
requisite  qualifications  ;  for  the  sex  is  clearly  marked  by  the 
word  slie  or  female,  or  the  appropriate  name  of  the  woman  ; 
as,  "  Joan  of  Arc  was  a  warrior."     "  The  Amazons  were  a 
nation  of  female  warriors." — Ency.  art.  Amazons.* 

5.  Although  the  English  language,  is  philosophically  cor- 
rect in  considering  things  without  life  as  of  neither  gender, 
yet  by  an  easy  analogy,  the  imagination  conceives  of  inani- 
mate things  as  animated  and  distinguished  by  sex.     On  this 
fiction,  called  personification,  depends  much  of  the  descrip- 
tive force  and  beauty  of  poetry. 

"  Indus  or  Ganges  rolling  his  broad  wave/'          Akenside. 

"  There  does  the  soul 
Consent  her  soaring  fancy  to  restrain."  Ibm. 


*  The  termination  or  in  Latin  is  a  contraction  of  ver,  a  man  ;  as  er  in 
English  is  of  wer,  the  same  word  in  Saxon.  But  in  common  under- 
standing, the  idea  of  gender  is  hardly  attached  to  these  terminations ;  for 
we  add  cr  to  words  to  denote  an  agent  without  life ;  as,  grater,  heater. 


24  AN    IMPKOVED    GRAMMAR 

"  Now  morn,  Tier  rosy  steps  in  th}  eastern  clime 
Advancing — "  Milton,  P.  L.  b.  5. 

"  The  north-east  spends  his  rage."  Thomson. 


*  CASE. 

Case  in  grammar  denotes  a  variation  of  words  to  express 
the  relation  of  things  to  each  other.  In  English,  most  of 
the  relations  are  expressed  by  separate  words ;  but  the  rela- 
tion of  property,  ownership  or  possession,  is  expressed  by 
adding  s  to  a  name,  with  an  apostrophy  ;  thus,  John's  book  ; 
which  words  are  equivalent  to  "  the  book  of  John."  This 
is  called  the  Possessive  Case.  In  English  therefore  names 
have  two  cases  only,  the  nominative  or  simple  name,  and 
the  possessive.  The  nominative  before  a  verb,  and  the  ob- 
jective after  a  verb,  are  not  distinguished  by  inflections,  and 
are  to  be  known  only  by  position  or  the  sense  of  the  pas- 
sage. 

When  the  letter  s,  added  as  the  sign  of  the  possessive, 
will  coalesce  with  the  name,  it  is  pronounced  in  the  same 
syllable;  as,  John's.  But  if  it  will  not  coalesce,  it  adds  a 
syllable  to  the  word ;  as,  Thomas's  bravery,  pronounced  as 
if  written  Thomasis — the  church's  prosperity,  churchis 
prosperity.  These  examples  show  the  impropriety  of  re- 
trenching the  vowel ;  but  it  occasions  no  inconvenience  to 
natives. 

When  words  end  in  es  or  ss,  the  apostrophy  is  added 
without  e  ;  as,  on  eagles'  wings ;  for  righteousness'  sake. 

PRONOUNS  OR  SUBSTITUTES. 

Substitutes  or  pronouns  are  of  two  kinds ;  those  which 
are  used  in  the  place  of  the  names  of  persons  only,  and  may 
be  called  personal;  and  those  which  represent  names,  at- 
tributes, a  sentence  or  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  series  of  pro- 
positions. 

The  pronouns  which  are  appropriate  to  persons,  are,  I, 
thou,  you,  he,  she,  we,  ye,  and  who. 

I  is  used  by  a  speaker  to  denote  himself,  and  is  called  the 
jirst  person  of  the  singular  number. 

When  a  speaker  includes  othersxwith  himself,  he  uses  we. 
This  is  the  Jirst  person  of  the  plural  number. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  25 

Thou  and  you  represent  the  person  addressed — tliou  in 
solemn  discourse,  and  you,  in  common  language.*  These 
are  the  second  person.  In  the  plural,  ye  is  used  in  solemn 
style,  and  you  in  familiar  language. 

He  represents  the  name  of  a  male,  and  she,  that  of  a  fe- 
male, who  is  the  subject  of  discourse,  but  not  directly  ad- 
dressed. These  are  called  the  third  person. 

*  As  you  was  originally  in  the  plural  number,  grammarians  insist  that 
it  must  still  be  restricted  to  that  number.     But  national  usage  rejects  the 
arbitrary  principle.     The  true  principle,  on  which  all  language  is  built, 
rejects  it.     What  fundamental  rule  have  we  to  dispose  of  words,  but  this, 
that  when  a  word  signifies  one,  or  unity,  it  belongs  to  the  singular  num- 
ber ?     If  a  word,  once  exclusively  plural,  becomes,  by  universal  use,  the 
sign  of  individuality ,  it  must  take  its  place  in  the  singular  number.    That 
this  is  a  fact  with  you,  is  proved  by  national  usage.     To  assign  the  sub- 
stitute to  its  verb,  is  to  invert  the  order  of  things.     The  verb  must  follow 
its  nominative — if  that  denotes  unity,  so  does  the  verb. 

"  When  you  was  at  Athens,  you  attended  the  schools  of  the  philoso- 
phers."— Cicero,  Tusc.  Quest.  Trans,  b.  2. 

"  On  that  happy  day  when  you  was  given  to  the  world." — Dodd's 
Massillon,  Serm.  1. 

"  Unless  you  was  ill." — BosweWs  Life  of  J.  JE.  68. 

"  You  icas  on  the  spot  where  your  enemy  was  found  killed." — Gu- 
thries  Quinctilian}b.  2. 

"  You  was  in  hopes  to  have  succeeded  to  the  inheritance." — Ibm.  b.  5. 

"  When  you  was  here  comforting  me  " — Pope's  Let. 

"  I  am  as  well  as  when  you  was  here." — Gays  Let  to  Swift. 

"  Why  was  you  glad  ?" — BosweWs  Life  of  Johnson. 

These  writers  did  not  commit  mistakes  in  the  use  of  the  verb  after  you 
— they  wrote  the  language  as  established  by  national  usage — the  founda- 
tion of  all  language.  So  is  the  practice  in  the  United  States — not  mere- 
ly popular  usage,  though  this,  when  general,  is  respectable  authority; 
but  the  practice  of  men  of  letters. 

"  Where  was  you  standing  during  the  transaction  ?" 
"  How  far  was  you  from  the  defendant  ?" 

"How  far  was  you  from  the  parties?" — Judge  Parker.  Trial  of 
Self  ridge,  p.  58. 

"  Was  you  acquainted  with  the  defendant  at  college  ?" — Mr.  Dexter. 
Jim.  p.  60. 

"  Was  you  there  when  the  pistol  was  fired?" — Mr.  Gore.  Ibm.  60. 
"  Was  you  in  the  office?"— Att.  Gen.  Ibm.  68.* 

*  This  use  of  was  is  from  the  Gothic  dialect ;  but  it  is  primitive  and 
correct. 

3 


26  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

It  is  a  substitute  for  the  name  of  any  thing  of  the  neuter 
gender  in  the  third  person,  and  for  a  sentence. 

They  is  a  substitute  for  the  names  of  persons  or  things, 
and  forms  the  third  person  of  the  plural  number. 

Who  is  a  relative  or  a  personal  pronoun,  used  to  intro- 
duce a  new  clause  or  affirmation  into  a  sentence,  which 
clause  has  an  immediate  dependence  on  the  preceding  one.* 
Who  is  also  used  to  ask  questions,  and  hence  it  is  called  an 
interrogative. 

Which  is  also  a  relative,  but  is  of  neuter  gender.  It  is 
also  interrogative. 

These  pronouns  have  two  cases ;  the  nominative  which 
precedes  a  verb,  and  the  objective  which  follows  it.  They 
are  inflected  in  the  following  manner : 

Sing.     Plu. 

Nominative  .      It         we 
Objective  me       us 

Nom.   -    -    -    thou     ye 
Obj.     -    -    -     thee     you 

Nom.   -     -     -     you      you 
Obj.     -    -    -     you      you 

Nom.   -    -    -     he        they 
Obj.     -    -     -     him      them 


Plu. 

Nom.  -  -  she        they 

Obj.  -  -  her        them 

Nom.  -  -  it          they 

Obj.  -  -  it          them 

Nom.  -  -  who       who 

Obj.  -  -  whom   whom 


NOTE. — Mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  yours  and  theirs,  are  usually  consid- 
ered as  the  possessive  case.  But  the  three  first  are  either  attributes, 
and  used  with  nouns,  or  they  are  substitutes.  The  three  last  are  always 
substitutes,  used  in  the  place  of  names  which  are  understood,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  note  below.t 


*  Who  is  called  a  relative,  because  it  relates  to  an  antecedent.  But 
this  is  also  true  of  he,  she,  they,  and  most  of  the  substitutes.  They  all 
relate  to  the  words  which  they  represent. 

t  Me  is  also  used  in  the  nominative,  in  popular  practice — it  is  me. 
This  is  condemned  as  bad  English ;  but  in  reality  is  an  original  idiom  of 
the  language,  received  from  the  primitive  Celtic  inhabitants  of  England 
and  France,  in  whose  language  mi  was  the  nominative  case  of  the  first 
personal  pronoun.  The  French  language  retains  the  same  word,  from 
the  same  original,  in  the  phrase  c'est  moi — it  is  I. 

t  That  mine,  thine,  his,  yours,  hers  and  theirs,  do  not  constitute  a  pos- 
sessive case,  is  demonstrable  ;  for  they  are  constantly  used  as  the  nom- 
inatives to  verbs,  and  as  the  objectives  after  verbs  and  prepositions,  as  in 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  27 

Its  and  whose  have  a  better  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  possessive 
case  ',  but  as  they  equally  well  fall  under  the  denomination  of  attributes, 
1  have,  for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  assigned  them  a  place  with  that  part 
of  speech. 

But  it  must  be  observed,  that  although  it  and  who  are  real  substitutes, 
never  united  to  names,  like  attributes — it  day — who  man ;  yet  its  and 
whose  cannot  be  detached  from  a  name  expressed  or  implied ;  as,  its 
shape — its  figure — whose  face — whose  works — whose  are  they  ?  that  is, 
whose  works  ?  These  are  therefore  real  attributes. 

In  the  use  of  substitutes,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  /,  thou, 
you,  ye  and  we  are  generally  employed  without  an  antece- 
dent name.  -When  /  and  the  name  of  the  person  are  both 
employed,  as  they  are  in  formal  writings,  oaths  and  the  like, 

the  following  passages :  "  Whether  it  could  perform  its  operations  of 
thinking  and  memory  out  of  a  body  organized  as  ours  is. — Locke,  b.  2. 
27.  "  In  referring  our  ideas  to  those  of  other  men  called  by  the  same 
name,  ours  maybe  false." — "  It  is  for  no  other  reason  but  that  his  agrees 
not  with  our  ideas." — Ibm.  ch.  32.  9  and  10. 

"  You  may  imagine  what  kind  of  faith  theirs  was." — Bacon.  Unity 
in  Religion. 

"  He  ran  headlong  into  his  own  ruin  whilst  he  endeavored  to  precip- 
itate ours" — Bolingbroke.  Let.  to  Windham. 

"  The  reason  is,  that  his  subject  is  generally  things ;  theirs,  on  the 
contrary,  is  persons."  Camp.  Rhet.  b.  1.  ch.  10. 

"  Yours  of  the  26th  Oct.  I  have  received,  as  I  have  always  done 
yours,  with  no  little  satisfaction." — Wycherley  to  Pope. 

"  Therefore  leave  your  forest  of  beasts  for  ours  of  brutes,  called  men." 
—Ibm. 

"  These  return  so  much  better  out  of  your  hands  than  they  went  from 
mine." — Ibm. 

"  Your  letter  of  the  20th  of  this  month,  like  the  rest  of  yours — tells 
me  with  so  much  more  wit,  sense  and  kindness  than  mine  can  express," 
&c. — Ibm. 

"  Having  good  works  enough  of  your  own  besides  to  ensure  yours 
and  their  immortality." — Ibm. 

"  The  omission  of  repetitions  is  but  one,  and  the  easiest  part  of  yours 
and  of  my  design." — Pope  to  Wycherley. 

"  My  sword  and  yours  are  kin." — Shakspeare. 

It  is  needless  to  multiply  proofs.  We  observe  these  pretended  pos- 
sessives  uniformly  used  as  nominatives  or  objectives.  To  say  that,  in 
these  passages,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  and  mine  form  a  possessive  case,  is 
to  make  the  possessive  perform  the  office  of  a  nominative  case  to  verbs, 
and  an  objective  case  after  verbs  and  prepositions — a  manifest  solecism. 

Should  it  be  said  that  a  noun  is  understood  ;  I  reply,  this  cannot  be 
true,  in  regard  to  the  grammatical  construction  :  for  supply  the  noun  for 
which  the  word  is  a  substitute,  and  the  pronoun  must  be  changed  into 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


lh«-  pronoun     J.K  («<!«:   tin-    name  ;   as,   "I,  Richard   Roc,  of 
I!-.   Ion  In      null.  ir   |;III;MI;I;M-,   i/ui/  and    //v    also  |>i»vrd<'    the; 

mm.:;  JIM,  "  You,.  loin.  Dor,  of  New  York."     "  We,  Richard 
!«.,.-,  HIM!  .i«,in.  Doo,  of  Philadelphia." 

J<>/'  i  ii-.  ••'!  hy  writer;  very  indefinitely,  as  a  suhst  iluir  lor 
any  j»<  r  on  who  may  rr.nl  ihr  work  —  llir  mind  of  the  writer 
i  iii(i!'i  ni  n"  a  |MT:,OII  addressed. 

///•  and  I  In-  1/  an  ii  ,,-i|  111  tin  aim-  indefinite  manner;  as, 
"  ///•  :<|<lom  JiveH  lue'ally,  irlia  lives  hy  r.haiir»-.M  lt  Illess- 
<!ll  /ire  ////•//  thai  MIOIIMI,  loi  f/ni/  hall  In-  roinl'ortrd."' 

///  .in.l  ////•//,  III  nrli  sriitriirr;;,  ir|»M--,rnl  ailV  jMTSOnS 
who  I  ill  \\illnii  the  ill*  «  (|iicn!  d<  ,ci  i|»l  inn. 

\\'hn  and  irlnmi  an  a  I  \\  a  \  'til*  lilnh  ;  for  />rrstui*t  and 
iH-vn  lot  linn"  .  or  hiiiti  1  1  /'  piallv  apphrahlr  to 

pOMOriH  II  lo  ihuijfH.t 

,.,.    ...l|.  OtlV<  \  "'"        "I     til-      "Ml,    ol     <  >,  h.l.ri  .       I..T..I 

'      In      .    ||.|(     M   ....   ,1     I..     |.|.-,   i|.il 

Ili-il   H.  !   other 


,n.»i 


In  iliMMi  i»n«KHi(«'N,  junt  quoted,  the  word  //,.///..  in  p.m.  ,1  |.\-  a 
•  '  Ltm  »>  tn«  NAinn  OMO:  "  To  ensure  yawr*  nn.l  //., 

.»if,il,l,,  ,.  ,il     -I         r»UfJ     Ml..  I      of     ,;,//    ,/<>/.;;,  "    \|\ 

UK)    </'""      ""     lun          \\  .11   MI.V    |»  i   .">,    |.i,  -l.-iul  (hat    tin-  rollIK 
h.  i.     jnitl     .hll.  I'iMil    .  anon  f 

1  I  ......  n     i«l'    i    lll"ll    i       r.|H.illv    il.M    i-.ivi-    «'f   III 

>  I   pONNOMNlVPl,  tllOtl  the  MUtte  WOrd  .i.lnnl      <>l  '  I  \\  n  (I  ilfcr 

>  i  n  •    ,     I-  M     \\  r     .1  \    '  "M  ••'  I  1\  .    '   ill  i    :ir.|U.nnlaii.-<     .  .('      ,     ,      .  , 

inu-',nt  i/int'§*t*~qf  being  tlf   i"ti<>i  HI,-  p  init  H'  tin-  \\.u.ii 

in   Hi.  ,  ii   lit.  -IK   HIM  .1   lu<   I  \\  "    M.'tr.  <>!   Ih 

t  ii  n«,   \\  hi.  h 

<  '.nii|.  Hi     Ih.     .     \\  mil  i  \\  ill)  a    MUM.'  in  III,-  |> 
(H  On  M   lull  ,    in  \    l.i  I  In  i   M    IN  Oh  I    i  •  l.i  ni  I  lofQ  filth  9T  '.-> 

MIV.'    riini'  .    lln'    \\.-i.l    fi.m-.r    h.  in.>    n  n.l.M  -.!  mnl  .    ami    ihr    tlildlllon    »»l'llu' 
n.  .mi   niiiKi'M    (in    all.  i  ih.-ii     in     Hi.  '   iu\    f.itli 

"  in  \    I  .Hi.  i    .  |I,<IIMH  IK." 

*  Tin  i.i.  .  «'iii|'-n  i-   \\  il  h   I  hal    «'l    naiMi".       \N  . 

,.|      Hi.     I.  IIIIF'H"«—  Of  A  Kol.h.  i    .-I     Hi.     Iviin-  M  M.hh.-! 
:.   ,|.i  .mil    i  ii.   ,•    ,  .1     \IMII          :l<   ijtiailllll 

II  '„.   ,    ,      ,  ill,,  ,    II  than   lli.<   • 

/../MI    ,••,          I    ,«\\  III   nl  i.i  .  .'in  I.  iiiii-i   Ih."   u-^r   »l    ;,-•'.',  -\,  -.   n\   l!u-    n.Mitri    .•»  n 

I    III.'          .1(1   II,  I   HI.         I   Mil,      ,      I   II.         Ill,'       I          I.  - 

ii  ,,          /'          .    ;.   Mill,  "i   an.  I      /./,/    ..-M         '      I'ho  i|Mi-.-<(i«i|i    <r'(.',v<    Ni>luhi*M   I    \V 
I,  i\  ,      )..   in   Ii  air.  I    I,.   lh.<    I...M.MII   .M  ').'   UMtl     H  * 

n  ,.  i  ,.i  ih,    pi  iiuii 
in  w»Ai'  ./wAn,  yNAnl  ;  UM  HAXOUN.  : 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  29 

Whoever  is  often  employed  as  the  nominative  to  two 
verbs ;  as,  "  Whoever  expects  to  find  in  the  scriptures  a  spe- 
cific direction  for  every  moral  doubt  that  arises,  looks  for 
more  than  he  will  meet  with." — Paley,  Phil.  ch.  4. 

Mine,  thine  and  his  are  equally  well  used  as  substitutes, 
or  as  attributes.  "  The  silver  is  mine,  and  the  gold  is  mine." 
— Hag.  2.  8.  "  The  day  is  thine,  the  night  also  is  thine" — 
I*  71.  16.  "The  Lord  knoweth  them  that  are  his"— % 
Tun.  2.  19.  In  these  examples,  the  words  mine,  thine,  his, 
may  be  considered  as  substitutes. — "  The  silver  is  mine," 
that  ;  ' •'/•. 

In  this  character,  the  words  usually  follow  the  verb ;  but 

wln-n  emphatical,  they  may  pn-rrde  it;   as,  "His  will  I  be." 

— 2  *SV////.  Hi.  I*.     "  Tli  in' ,  < )  Lord,  is  the  greatness,  the  pow- 

nd  the  glory." — 1  Ch.  20.  11.    "  Thine  is  tin  kingdom. "* 

These  words  are  &100  D0ed  as  attributes  of  possession;  as, 
not  inim-  ••iM-mii's  triumph."  "  So  let  thine  enemies 
h."  "  And  Ahrain  removed  hit  tent."  Mine  and  thim 
are  however  not  thus  used  in  familiar  languago  ;  but  in  sol- 
nun  and  el«-vated  style,  ;  til!  u-«-d  as  attributes. 

"  Mine  eyes  beheld  the  messenger  divine." — Lusiad,  b.  2. 

( Germans  still  use  wer,  icessen,  wcm  ;  th<-   Dutch. 

i  the  Laws  of  IS  </>tmus — We  have 

i  ir/mxr.     From  th.-  tiiiu-  of  Numa,  at  least,  this  jri-mir 

-r.v.  ;tnd  I    hrh-v.  n-mains   SO,  in    ;ill  «.!'  tin- 

It  is  better  classed  with  adjectives  or  attribute*},  lik< 
*  In  a/ldi)  dj  ;.ll.-Lr.'d,  th.-.i  th»-M-  words  ;u,-  m.t  .1 

possessive  ca»o,  id,  we  may 

'lie  passages  used  in  ill.   t< 

the  gold  is  '  '  th.Mn  that  areo/ 

//////.  '  is,  ;IH   lli.'  prcNi'iit    lurm   of  cxpK'h^H.n 

(JJ\  in  these  expressions,  would  r;tth<-r  imply  proceeding  from, 
Besides,  the  same  word-*  admit  •  f  the  possessive  ;  :n.  "  And 

from   mm.-  nil. ii 
i  if  his."       /'.v    :'.U      I        "   1!'     lli.i' 

th  these  sayin^M  '  Muti  1      Win  i. 

ers    mid  in  tli<-  |..i--- .!."••  h.  i< 


TromStmiiel,  u  tl»«-  m;i/i  o)  i  lil.«    •«!.••          ili<    111 

thy  mt  '-I'  tin-in        IJul  in    tin-  |...  •;.;•••-  h..m   I 

an'd  M.-ittin-v.'  tbft  wordf"  all  ye  saints  of  his,"  "  th  «-i  »« 

niiml.i   I  I  I 

possible  to  r«;»olv»;  these  passaged,  willuint  • 

lug  as  »uh»t.itut/-H,  in  the  tame  cane,  as  the  i.  <i  I"    v  i".  I.  H><  \ 

*nt. 


30  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

There  is  another  class  of  substitutes,  which  supply  the  place 
of  names,  attributes,  sentences  or  parts  of  a  sentence. 

It. 

In  the  following  sentence,  it  is  the  substitute  for  a  name. 
"  The  sun  rules  the  day ;  it  illumines  the  earth  ;"  here  it  is 
used  for  sun,  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  word. 

In  the  following  passage,  it  has  a  different  use  :  "  The 
Jews,  it  is  well  known,  were  at  this  time  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Romans." — Porteus,  Lect.  8.  Here  it  represents  the 
whole  of  the  sentence,  except  the  clause  in  which  it  stands. 
To  understand  this,  let  the  order  of  the  words  be  varied. 
"  The  Jews  were  at  this  time  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans, it  [all  that]  is  well  known/' 

"  It  is  a  testimony  as  glorious  to  his  memory,  as  it  is  sin- 
gular, and  almost  unexampled  in  his  circumstances,  that  he 
loved  the  Jewish  nation,  and  that  he  gave  a  very  decisive 
proof  of  it,  by  building  them  a  synagogue." — Ibm. 

To  discover  what  is  represented  by  the  first  it,  we  must 
inquire,  What  is  a  glorious  testimony?  Why,  clearly,  that  he 
loved  the  Jewish  nation,  and  gave  them  a  decisive  proof  of  it, 
by  building  them  a  synagogue.  It  then  is  a  substitute  for 
those  clauses  of  the  sentence.  The  second  it  refers  to  the 
same  clauses.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence,  he  gave  a 
magnificent  proof  of  it — of  what  ?  of  what  is  related  in  a  pre- 
ceding clause — he  loved  the  Jewish  nation — of  that  he  gave 
a  decisive  and  magnificent  proof.  Here  it  represents  that 
member  of  the  sentence. 

"  As  for  the  pulling  of  them  down,  if  the  affairs  require 
it" — Bacon  on  Ambition.  Require  what?  "The  pulling 
of  them  down" — for  which  part  of  the  sentence  it  is  a  sub- 
stitute. 

"  Shall  worldly  glory,  impotent  and  vain, 
That  fluctuates  like  the  billows  of  the  main : 
Shall  this  with  more  respect  thy  bosom  move 
Than  zeal  for  crowns  that  never  fade  above  ? 
Avert  it,  heaven !" — Hook's  Tasso,  6.  5. 

Avert  what  ?     All  that  is  expressed  in  the  four  preceding 
lines,  for  all  which  it  is  a  substitute. 

"  And  how  could  he  do  this  so  effectually,  as  by  perform- 
ing works,  which  it  utterly  exceeded  all  the  strength  and 
ability  of  men  to  accomplish." — Porteus,  Lect.  5. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  31 

What  utterly  exceeded  ?  To  what  does  it  refer  ?  Let  us 
invert  the  order  of  the  words — "  as  by  performing  works,  to 
accomplish  which  exceeded  all  the  strength  of  men."  Here 
we  find  to  accomplish,  a  verb  in  the  infinitive,  is  the  nomina- 
tive to  exceeded,  and  for  that  verb,  it  is  a  substitute. 

This  inceptive  use  of  it  forms  a  remarkable  idiom  of  our 
language,  and  deserves  more  particular  illustration.  It  stands 
as  the  substitute  for  a  subsequent  member  or  clause  of  a  sen- 
tence, and  is  a  sort  of  pioneer  to  smooth  the  way  for  the 
verb.  Thus,  "  It  is  remarkable,  that  the  philosopher  Seneca 
makes  use  of  the  same  argument." — Porteus,  Lect.  6.  If 
we  ask,  What  is  remarkable  ?  the  answer  must  be,  The  fact 
stated  in  the  last  clause  of  the  sentence.  That  this  is  the 
real  construction,  appears  from  a  transposition  of  the  clauses, 
"  The  philosopher  Seneca  makes  use  of  the  same  argument, 
that  is  remarkable."  In  this  order  we  observe  the  true  use 
of  that,  which  is  also  a  substitute  for  the  preceding  clause 
of  the  sentence,  and  it  becomes  redundant.  The  use  then 
of  the  inceptive  it,  appears  to  be  to  enable  us  to  begin  a  sen- 
tence, without  placing  a  verb  as  the  introductory  word ;  and 
by  the  use  of  it  and  that  as  substitutes  for  subsequent  mem- 
bers of  the  sentence,  the  order  is  inverted  without  occasion- 
ing obscurity. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  also  that  this  neuter  substitute  it,  is 
equally  proper  to  begin  sentences,  when  the  name  of  a  per- 
son is  afterwards  used  ;  as,  "  It  was  John  who  exhibited  such 
powers  of  eloquence."  But  if  we  transpose  the  words,  and 
place  who  or  that,  the  substitute  which  begins  a  new  clause, 
next  after  the  inceptive  word,  we  must  use  he  for  the  incep- 
tive— "  He,  who  or  that  exhibited  such  powers  of  elgquence, 
was  John." 

In  interrogative  sentences,  the  order  of  words  is  changed, 
and  it  follows  the  verb.  Who  is  it  that  has  been  thus  elo- 
quent ? 

There  is  a  sentence  in  Locke,  in  which  the  inceptive  it,  is 
omitted,  "  Whereby  comes  to  pass,  that,  as  long  as  any  un- 
easiness remains  in  the  mind." — B.  ch.  21.  In  strictness,  this 
is  not  a  defective  sentence,  for  that  may  be  considered  as  the 
nominative  to  comes — Whereby  that  comes  to  pass  which 
follows.  Or  the  whole  subsequent  sentence  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  nominative — for  all  that  comes  to  pass.  But 
the  use  of  the  inceptive  it  is  so  fully  established  as  the  true 
idiom  of  language,  that  its  omission  is  not  to  be  vindicated. 


32  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

This  and  that,  these  and  those. 

This  and  that  are  either  definite  attributes  or  substitutes. 
As  attributes,  they  are  used  to  specify  individuals,  and  dis- 
tinguish them  from  others  ;  as,  "  This  my  son  was  dead  and 
is  alive  again. "  "  Certainly  this  was  a  righteous  man."  "  The 
end  of  that  man  is  peace."  "  Woe  to  that  man  by  whom  the 
Son  of  man  is  betrayed."  This  and  that  have  plurals,  these 
and  those. 

The  general  distinction  between  this  and  that,  is,  this  de- 
notes an  object  to  be  present  or  near  in  time  or  place ;  that, 
to  be  absent.  But  this  distinction  is  not  always  observed. 
In  correspondence  however  with  this  distinction,  when,  in 
discourse,  two  things  are  mentioned,  this  and  these  refer  to 
the  last  named,  or  nearest  in  the  order  of  construction ;  that 
and  those  to  the  most  distant ;  as, 

"  Self-love  and  reason  to  one  end  aspire, 

Pain  their  aversion,  pleasure  their  desire  ; 

But  greedy  that  [self  love]  its  object  would  devour, 

This  [reason]  taste  the  honey  and  not  wound  the  flower." 

Pope. 
"  Some  place  the  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease, 

Those  call  it  pleasure,  and  contentment  these" — Ibm. 

The  poets  sometimes  contrast  these  substitutes  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  to  denote  individuals  acting  or  existing  in  de- 
tached parties ;  or  to  denote  the  whole  acting  in  various  ca- 
pacities ;  as, 

"  'Twas  war  no  more,  but  carnage  through  the  field, 
Those  lift  their  sword,  and  these  their  bosoms  yield." 

Hook's  Tasso,  b.  20". 

"Nor  less  the  rest,  the  intrepid  chief  retain'd ; 
These  urged  by  threats,  and  those  by  force  constraint." 

Ibm. 

There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  that ;  for  when  it  is  an 
attribute,  it  is  always  in  the  singular  number  ;  but  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  persons  or  things,  it  is  plural  as  well  as  singular ; 
and  is  used  for  persons  as  well  as  things  more  frequently  than 
any  word  in  the  language ;  as, 

"  I  knew  a  man  that  had  it  for  a  by-word,  when  he  saw 
men  hasten  to  a  conclusion,  '  Stay  a  little,  that  we  may  make 
an  end  the  sooner.'  " — Bacon  on  Dispatch. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  33 

Here  that  is  the  representative  of  man,  and  it  stands  for  the 
last  clause  of  the  sentence  or  by-word. 

"  Let  states  that  aim  at  greatness  take  heed  how  their  no- 
hility  and  gentlemen  multiply  too  fast.7' — Bacon. 

Here  that  is  a  substitute  for  a  plural  name.  So  also  in  the 
following.  "  They  that  are  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but 
they  that  are  sick."  "  They  that  had  eaten  were  about  four 
thousand" — "  they  that  are  in  the  flesh" — "  they  that  weep" 
— "  bless  them  that  curse  you." 

Another  very  common  use  of  this  and  that,  is  to  represent 
a  sentence  or  part  of  a  sentence  ;  as, 

"It  is  seldom  known  that,  authority  thus  acquired  is  pos- 
sessed without  insolence,  or  that,  the  master  is  not  forced  to 
confess  that,  he  has  enslaved  himself  by  some  foolish  confi- 
dence."— Rambler,  No.  68. 

In  this  sentence,  the  first  that  represents  the  next  mem- 
ber— "  Authority  thus  acquired  is  possessed  without  inso- 
lence, that  is  seldom  known ;"  it  represents  the  same  clause. 
The  second  that  represents  all  which  follows,  including  two 
clauses  or  members ;  the  third  that  is  the  substitute  for  the 
last  clause.  In  strictness,  the  comma  ought  always  to  be 
placed  after  that ;  which  punctuation  would  elucidate  the 
use  of  the  substitute  and  the  true  construction ;  but  the  prac- 
tice is  otherwise ;  for*  that,  in  this  and  like  sentences,  is 
either  a  nominative  or  an  objective.  The  first  that  in  the 
foregoing  sentence  is  the  nominative,  coinciding  with  it,  or 
in  apposition  to  it ;  and  when  the  clauses  are  transposed, 
the  inceptive  it,  being  redundant,  is  dropped, -, and  that  be- 
comes the  nominative.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to 
the  second  that ;  the  verb  and  first  clause,  it  is  seldom  known, 
being  understood.  The  third  that  is  the  objective  after  con- 
fess. "  The  master  has  enslaved  himself  by  some  foolish 
confidence — he  is  forced  to  confess  that — all  that  is  seldom 
known." 

Such  is  the  true  construction  of  sentences — the  definitive 
that,  instead  of  being  a  conjunction,  is  the  representative  of 
a  sentence  or  distinct  clause,  preceding  that  clause,  and 
pointing  the  mind  to  it,  as  the  subject  which  follows.  And  it 
is  as  definite  or  demonstrative  in  this  application  to  sentences, 
as  when  it  is  applied  to  a  name  or  noun. 

The  following  sentence  will  exhibit  the  true  use  of  that 
as  a  substitute  :  "He  recited  his  former  calamities ;  to  which 


34  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

was  now  to  be  added  that  he  was  the  destroyer  of  the  man 
who  had  expiated  him." — Beloe's  Herodotus,  Clio,  45. 

According  to  our  present  grammars,  that  is  a  conjunction ; 
if  so,  the  preceding  verb  was,  has  no  nominative  word.  But 
the  sense  is,  "  to  which  was  to  be  added  that"  which  is  re- 
lated in  the  following  words. 

The  use  and  importance  of  this  substitute  are  more  clearly 
manifest,  when  it  denotes  purpose  or  effect ;  as  in  this  pas- 
sage, "  And  he  came  and  dwelt  in  a  city  called  Nazareth; 
that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophets, 
He  shall  be  called  a  Nazarene." — Matt.  2.  23.  Here  that  is 
equivalent  to  that  purpose  or  effect.  He  came  and  dwelt  in 
Nazareth,  for  the  purpose  expressed  in  what  follows.  It  and 
which  represent  the  last  clause  in  the  sentence — "  He  shall 
be  called  a  Nazarene."  The  excellence  and  utility  of  sub- 
stitutes and  abbreviations  are  strikingly  illustrated  by  this  use 
of  that. 

This  substitute  has  a  similar  use  in  this  introductory  sen- 
tence, That  we  may  proceed — that  here  refers  to  the  fol- 
lowing words.  The  true  construction  is,  But  that  we  may 
proceed — but,  as  will  hereafter  be  shown,  denoting  supply 
or  something  more  or  further ;  so  that  the  literal  interpreta- 
tion of  the  expression  is — More  that,  or  further  that,  we  may 
proceed.  It  is  the  simple  mode  our  ancestors  used  to  ex- 
press addition  to  what  has  preceded,  Equivalent  to  the  mod- 
ern phrase  ;  let  us  add,  or  we  may  add  what  follows,  by 
way  of  illustrating  or  modifying  the  sense  of  what  has  been 
related. 

That,  like  who  and  which,  has  a  connecting  power,  which 
has  given  to  these  words  the  name  of  relative;  in  which  char- 
acter, it  involves  one  member  of  a  sentence  within  another, 
by  introducing  a  new  verb  ;  as,  "  He,  that  keepeth  his  mouth, 
keepeth  his  life."  Prov.  13.  3. — In  this  passage,  that  keepeth 
liis  mouth,  is  a  new  affirmation,  interposed  between  the  first 
nominative  and  its  verb ;  but  dependant  on  the  antecedent 
nominative. 

"  The  poor  of  the  flock,  that  waited  upon  me,  knew  that 
it  was  the  word  of  the  Lord." — Zecli.  11. 11.  In  this  passage, 
we  have  that  in  both  its  characters — the  first  that  is  a  substi- 
tute for  poor  of  the  flock  ;  the  second,  for  the  last  clause  of 
the  sentence,  it  was  the  word  of  the  Lord. 

This  exposition  of  the  uses  of  that  enables  us  to  understand 
the  propriety  of  that  that  joined  in  construction. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  35 

"Let  me  also  tell  you  that,  that  faith,  which  proceeds 
from  insufficient  or  bad  principles,  is  but  little  better  than 
infidelity."  In  this  passage,  the  first  that  is  a  substitute  for 
the  whole  subsequent  part  of  the  sentence ;  the  second  that 
is  an  attribute  agreeing  with  faith — "  That  faith  which  pro- 
ceeds from  bad  principles  is  little  better  than  infidelity — let 
me  tell  you  that."  Hence  it  might  be  well  always  to  sepa- 
rate the  two  words  by  a  comma.  We  now  distinguish  these 
words  by  a  stronger  emphasis  on  the  last. 

"  He,  whom  thou  now  hast,  is  not  thy  husband ;  in  that 
saidst  thou  truly." — John  4.  16.  That  is,  in  that  whole 
declaration. 

From  these  passages  and  the  explanation,  we  learn  that 
that  is  a  substitute — either  for  a  single  word  or  a  sentence ; 
nor  has  it  any  other  character,  except  when  an  attribute. 

This  is  much  less  frequently  a  substitute  for  sentences 
than  that;  but  is  used  in  this  character,  as  well  as  in  that  of 
an  attribute  ;  as,  "  Let  no  prince  measure  the  danger  of  dis- 
contents by  this,  whether  they  be  just  or  unjust ;  for  that 
were  to  imagine  people  to  be  reasonable,  who  do  often  spurn 
at  their  own  good ;  nor  yet  by  this,  whether  the  griefs  where- 
upon they  rise  be  in  fact  great  or  small" 

Bacon  on  Kingdoms. 

Here  this,  in  each  part  of  the  sentence,  is  the  representa- 
tive of  the  clause  in  italics  succeeding. 

"  Can  we  suppose  that  all  the  united  powers  of  hell  are 
able  to  work  such  astonishing  miracles,  as  were  wrought  for 
the  confirmation  of  the  Christian  religion  ?  Can  we  suppose 
that  they  can  control  the  laws  of  nature  at  pleasure,  and  that 
with  an  air  of  sovereignty,  and  professing  themselves  the 
lords  of  the  universe,  as  we  know  Christ  did  ?  If  we  can 
believe  this,  then  we  deny,"  &/c.  We  observe,  here,  this 
represents  a  series  of  sentences. 

In  some  cases,  this  represents  a  few  words  only  in  a  pre- 
ceding sentence,  as  in  the  following — "  The  rule  laid  down 
is  in  general  certain,  that  the  king  only  can  convoke  a  par- 
liament. And  this  by  the  ancient  statutes  of  the  realm,  he 
is  bound  to  do,  every  year,  or  oftener,  if  need  be."  Blacks. 
Comment.  B.  1.  ch.  2. 

If  we  ask,  What  is  the  king  bound  to  do  ?  the  answer 
must  be,  Convoke  a  parliament ;  for  which  words  alone  this 
is  the  substitute,  and  governed  by  do. 


36  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

The  plurals  these  and  those,  are  rarely  or  never  used  as 
substitutes  for  sentences. 

Which. 

WJiich  is  also  a  substitute  for  a  sentence,  or  part  of  a 
sentence,  as  well  as  for  a  single  word ;  as,  "  if  there  can  be 
any  other  way  shown,  how  men  may  come  to  that  universal 
agreement,  in  the  things  they  do  consent  in,  which  I  presume 
may  be  done." — Locke  on  Und.  B.  1.  2. 

Which,  in  this  passage,  represents  all  which  precedes — 
which  or  all  that  is  above  related,  may  be  done. 

"  Another  reason  that  makes  me  doubt  of  any  innate  prac- 
tical principles,  is,  that  I  think  there  cannot  any  one  moral 
rule  be  proposed,  whereof  a  man  may  not  justly  demand  a 
reason ;  which  would  be  perfectly  ridiculous  and  absurd,  if 
they  were  innate,  or  so  much  as  self-evident,  which  every 
innate  principle  must  needs  be." — Ibm.  chap.  3. 

In  this  passage,  the  first  which  represents  the  next  prece- 
ding part  of  the  sentence,  a  man  may  justly  demand  a  reason 
— which  power  of  demanding  a  reason  would  be  ridiculous. 
The  second  which  is  a  substitute  for  self-evident ;  which,  that 
is,  self-evident,  every  principle  must  be. 

"  Judas  declared  him  innocent,  which  he  could  not  be,  had 
he,  in  any  respect,  deceived  the  disciples/' — Porteus,  Lect. 
2.  Here  which  represents  the  attribute  innocent. 

That  would  equally  well  represent  the  same  word,  with  a 
connective.  "  Judas  declared  him  innocent,  and  that  he 
could  not  be,"  &/c. 

"  We  shall  find  the  reason  of  it  to  be  the  end  of  language, 
which  being  to  communicate  thoughts" — that  is,  end  of  lan- 
guage ;  and  for  those  words,  is  which  the  substitute. 

What. 

This  substitute  has  several  uses.  First — it  has  the  sense 
of  that  which;  as,  "  I  have  heard  what  has  been  alleged." 

Secondly — What  stands  for  any  indefinite  idea;  as,  "  He 
cares  not  what  he  says  or  does."  "  We  shall  the  better  know 
what  to  undertake." — Locke  on  Und.  1.  6. 

Thirdly — W/iat  is  an  attribute,  either  in  the  singular  or 
plural  number,  and  denotes  something  uncertain  or  indeter- 
minate ;  as,  "  In  what  character,  Butler  was  admitted  into 
that  lady's  service,  is  unknown." — Johnson's  Life  of  Butler. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  37 

"  It  is  not  material  what  names  are  assigned  to  them." 

Camp.  Rhet.  1.1. 

"  I  know  not  what  impressions  time  may  have  made  upon 
your  person."  Life  of  Cowp.  Let.  27. 

"  To  see  what  are  the  causes  of  wrong  judgment." 

Locke,  2.  21. 

Fourthly — WJiat  is  used  by  the  poets  preceding  a  name, 
for  the  or  that  which,  but  its  place  cannot  be  supplied  by 
these  words,  without  a  name  between  them ;  as, 

"  Wliat  time  the  sun  withdrew  his  cheerful  light, 
And  sought  the  sable  caverns  of  the  night." 

Hook's  Tasso,  b.  7. 
That  is,  at  the  time  when  or  in  which. 

Fifthly — A  principal  use  of  what  is  to  ask  questions;  as, 
"What  will  be  the  consequence  of  the  revolution  in 
France  ?" 

This  word  has  the  singular  property  of  containing  two  cases ; 
that  is,  it  performs  the  office  of  a  word  in  the  nominative,  and 
of  another  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  I  have,  in  what  goes 
before,  been  engaged  in  physical  inquiries  farther  than  I  in- 
tended."— Locke,  2.  8.  Here  what  contains  the  object  after 
in,  and  the  nominative  to  goes. 

What  is  used  with  a  name  as  an  attribute  and  a  substi- 
tute ;  as,  "  It  was  agreed  that  what  goods  were  aboard  his 
vessels,  should  be  landed." — Mickle's  Discovery  of  India, 
89.  Here  what  goods  are  equivalent  to  the  goods  which ; 
for,  what  goods  include  the  nominative  to  two  verbs,  were 
and  should  be  landed.  This  use  of  the  word  is  not  deemed 
elegant. 

As. 

As  primarily  signifies  like,  similar;  the  primary  sense  of 
which  is  even,  equal.  It  is  used  adverbially  in  the  phrases, 
as  good,  as  great,  as  probable.  The  sense  of  which  is,  like 
or  equally  good,  great  or  probable.  Hence  it  frequently  fol- 
lows such.  "  Send  him  such  books  as  will  please  him." 
But  in  this  and  similar  phrases,  as  must  be  considered  as  the 
nominative  to  will  please;  or  we  must  suppose  an  ellipsis  of 
several  words.  "Send  him  such  books  as  the  books  which 
will  please  him,  or  as  those  which  will  please  him."  So  in 
the  following  sentences  : 
4 


38  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  We  have  been  accustomed  to  repose  on  its  veracity  with 
such  humble  confidence  as  suppresses  curiosity." 

Johnson's  Life  of  Cowley. 

<f  All  the  punishment  which  God  is  concerned  to  see  in- 
flicted on  sin,  is  only  such  as  answers  the  ends  of  govern- 
ment." 

"  Many  wise  men  contented  themselves  with  such  proba- 
ble conclusions,  as  were  sufficient  for  the.  practical  purposes 
of  life."  EnfieU,  Hist.  Phil  2.  11. 

"  The  malcontents  made  such  demands  as  none  but  a  ty- 
rant could  refuse.3'  BoUngbroJce  on  Hist.  Let  7. 

In  the  last  example,  if  as  is  to  be  considered  as  a  pronoun 
or  substitute,  it  is  in  the  objective  case. 

These  and  similar  phrases  are  anomalous;  and  we  can 
resolve  them  only  by  supplying  the  ellipsis,  or  by  considering 
as  in  the  nature  of  a  pronoun,  and  the  nominative  to  the 
verb. 

In  the  following  form  of  expression,  we  may  supply  it  for 
the  nominative  :  "  Do  every  thing  as  was  said  about  mercu- 
ry and  sulphur." — Encyc. 

"  As  it  was  said." 

In  poetry,  as  supplies  the  place  of  such,  or  such  as. 

"  From  whence  might  contest  spring  and  mutual  rage, 
As  would  the  camp  in  civil  broils  engage." 

Hook's  Tasso. 

In  prose,  we  should  say,  "  such  contest  and  rage  as.:) 

As  sometimes  refers  to  a  sentence  or  member  of  a  sen- 
tence, and  sometimes  its  place  may  be  supplied  by  which. 
"On  his  return  to  Egypt,  as  I  learned  from  the  same  au- 
thority, he  levied  a  mighty  army."  Beloc,  Herod. 

Which  I  learned.  "  On  his  return  to  Egypt,  he  levied  a 
mighty  army,  which  [fact]  I  learned  from  the  same  authority." 

As  often  begins  a  sentence.  "  As  to  the  three  orders  of 
pronouns  already  mentioned,  they  may  be  called  pre-positive, 
as  may  indeed  all  substantives." — Harris.  That  is,  con- 
cerning, respecting  the  three  orders,  or  to  explain  that  which 
respects  the  three  orders,  &c. 

Both. 

Both  is  an  adjective  of  number ;  but  it  is  a  substitute  also 
for  names,  sentences,  parts  of  sentences,  and  for  attributes. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  OV 

"  Abraham  took  sheep  and  oxen,  and  gave  them  to  Abime- 
lech,  and  both  of  them  made  a  covenant." 

Genesis,  21.  27. 

Here  both  is  the  representative  of  Abraham  and  Abime- 
lech. 

"  If  the  blind  lead  the  blind,  both  shall  fall  into  the  ditch." 

Matt.  15.  14. 

"  A  certain  creditor  had  two  debtors — and  when  they  had 
nothing  to  pay,  he  frankly  forgave  them  both." — Luke  7. 

"  He  will  not  bear  the  loss  of  his  rank,  because  he  can 
bear  the  loss  of  his  estate ;  but  he  will  bear  bothy  because  he 
is  prepared  for  both." — Boling.  on  Exile. 

In  the  last  example,  both  represents  the  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence in  italics. 

When  it  represents  two  attributes,  it  may  and  usually  does 
precede  them ;  as,  "  he  endeavored  to  render  commerce 
both  disadvantageous  and  infamous." — Mickle,p.  159. 

As  an  attribute,  it  has  a  like  position   before  names;  as, 

"  Tousa  confessed  he  had  saved  both  his  life  and  his  honor/' 

Ibm.  160. 

"  It  is  both  more  accurate,  and  proves  no  inconsiderable 
aid  to  the  right  understanding  of  things,  to  discriminate  by 
different  signs  such  as  are  truly  different." 

Campbell's  Rhet.  1.  33. 

In  this  passage,  both  represents  more  accurate,  and  the 
following  member  of  the  sentence ;  but  the  construction  is 
harsh. 

"  The  necessity  which  a  speaker  is  under,  of  suiting  him- 
self to  his  audience,  both  that  he  may  be  understood  by  them, 
and  that  his  words  may  have  an  influence  upon  them." — 
Camp.  Rhet.  Ch.  10. 

Here  both  represents  the  two  following  clauses  of  the  sen- 
tence. The  definitive  the  is  placed  between  both  and  its 
noun ;  as,  "  To  both  the  preceding  kinds,  the  term  burlesque 
is  applied." — Camp.  Rhet.  1.  2. 

Same. 

The  adjective  same  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  per- 
sons and  sentences  or  parts  of  a  sentence ;  as,  "Nothing  ap- 
pears so  clearly  an  object  of  the  mind  or  intellect  only,  as 


40  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

the  future  does,  since  we  can  find  no  place  for  its  existence 
any  where  else.  Not  but  the  same,  if  we  consider,  is  equal- 
ly true  of  the  past." — Hermes,  p.  112. 

In  this  ill-constructed  sentence,  same  has  reference  to  all 
which  is  predicated  of  the  future  tense — that  is,  that  it  is  an 
object  of  intellect  only,  since  we  canjind  no  place  for  its  ex- 
istence any  where  else — The  same,  all  this,  is  true  of  the 
past  also. 

"  For  brave  and  generous  ever  are  the  same."  Lusiad.  1. 
Many,  few,  all,  any. 

These  words  we  often  find  used  as  substitutes  for  names  ; 
"  For  many  shall  come  in  my  name,  saying,  I  am  Christ, 
and  shall  deceive  many." — Matt.  24.  5.  "  Many  are  called, 
but  few  chosen."  20.  16.  "  All  that  come  into  the  tent,  and 
all  that  is  in  the  tent,  shall  be  unclean  seven  days." — Num. 
19.  14.  "  If  a  soul  shall  sin  against  any  of  the  command- 
ments."— Lev.  4.  2.  "  Neither  is  there  any,  that  can  de- 
liver out  of  my  hand."— Deut.  32,  39. 

First,  last,  former,  latter,  less,  least,  more,  mosty 
are  often  used  as  substitutes. 

"The  victor's  laurel,  as  the  martyr's  crown, 
Thejirst  I  hope,  nor  less  the  last  I  prize." 

Hook's  Tasso,  6.  8. 

"  The  last  shall  be  first,  and  the  Jirst  last.— Matt.  20.  16. 

"  It  will  not  be  amiss  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  this 
strange  phenomenon  ;  that,  even  a  man  of  discernment  should 
write  without  meaning,  and  not  be  sensible  that  he  hath  no 
meaning ;  and  that  judicious  people  should  read  what  hath 
been  written  in  this  way,  and  not  discover  the  defect.  Both 
are  surprising,  but  the  Jirst  much  more  than  the  last." — Camp. 
Rhet.  2.  7. 

Here  both  represents  the  two  clauses  of  the  sentence,  pre- 
ceded by  that — both  of  those  propositions  are  surprising. 
First  and  last  stand  in  the  place  of  the  same  clauses. 

"  Sublimity  and  vehemence  are  often  confounded,  the  lat* 
ter  being  considered  as  a  species  of  the  former." — Camp. 
Rhet.  1.1. 

Here  latter  and  former  are  used  for  names  which  are  near 
in  construction,  and  no  obscurity  is  occasioned  by  the  sub- 
stitutes. But  these  words,  when  placed  far  from  the  words 
which  they  represent,  obscure  the  sense,  and  compel  the 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  41 

reader  to  peruse  a  sentence  the  second  time,  which  is  always 
a  fault  in  style.  For  example  :  "  As  to  the  ^Etolian,  it  is 
frequently  confounded  with  the  Doric  ;  and  as  this  union 
takes  place  also  in  other  essential  points,  it  is  only  between 
the  Dorians  and  lonians  that  a  kind  of  parallel  can  be  drawn. 
This  I -shall  not  undertake  to  perform ;  I  shall  only  make 
one  general  observation  ;  the  manners  of  the  former  have 
ever  been  severe,  and  the  characteristics  of  their  architect- 
ure, language  and  poetry,  are  grandeur  and  simplicity.  The 
latter  more  early  made  a  progress  in  refinement." — Anarch, 
ch.  72. 

In  every  jcase,  where  the  antecedent  word  or  sentence  is 
not  obvious,  so  that  the  mind  instantly  applies  the  substitute 
to  its  principal,  the  use  of  a  substitute  is  a  fault.  For  exam- 
ple :  "  When  a  speaker  addresseth  himself  to  the  understand- 
ing, he  proposes  the  instruction  of  his  hearers,  and  that  by 
explaining  some  doctrine  unknown  or  not  distinctly  compre- 
hended by  them,  or  by  proving  some  position  disbelieved  or 
doubted  by  them.  In  other  words,  he  proposes  to  dispel  ig- 
norance or  to  vanquish  error.  In  the  one,  his  aim  is  their 
information;  in  the  other,  their  conviction.  Accordingly,  the 
predominant  quality  of  the  former  is  perspicuity ;  of  the  latter, 
argument.  By  that,  we  are  made  to  know ;  by  this,  to  be- 
lieve."—Camp.  Rhet.  6.  1.  ch.  1. 

To  what  antecedent  words  or  clauses,  do  all  these  substi- 
tutes refer  ?  In  the  one — and  the  other  what  ?  Doubtless,  the 
antecedents  must  be  the  two  parts  of  the  sentences,  beginning 
with,  by  explaining  and  by  proving.  That  is,  in  explaining 
an  unknown  doctrine,  his  aim  is  instruction — in  proving  a 
doubted  point,  his  aim  is  conviction.  The  predominant 
quality  of  the  former — former  what  ?  unquestionably,  the 
same  sentences  are  the  antecedents  to  the  former  and  latter. 
These  words  cannot  refer  to  information  and  conviction ;  for 
although  perspicuity  may  be  predicated  of  information,  yet  it 
cannot  be  a  predominant  quality  of  it ;  and  argument  cannot 
be  predicated  of  conviction.  But  the  whole  passage  is  per- 
plexed and  obscure.* 

*  This  criticism  is  the  more  necessary,  as  the  use  of 'former  and  latter 
in  our  best  writers,  is  indulged  to  a  fault.  There  are  few  places  in  which 
it  is  not  better  to  repeat  the  antecedents  than  to  use  former  and  latter. 
The  injudicious  use  of  these  and  other  substitutes  is  a  great  blemish  in 
Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric. 
4  # 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  Leonis  refused  to  go  thither  with  less  than  the  appoint- 
ed equipment." — Mickle,  1.  181.  Here  less  supplies  the 
place  of  equipment,  and  prevents  the  necessity  of  its  repe- 
tition. 

:<  To  the  relief  of  these,  Noronha  sent  some  supplies,  but 
while  he  was  preparing  to  send  more,  an  order  from  Portugal 
arrived."— Mickle,  1.  180. 

Here  more  is  sufficiently  intelligible  without  a  repetition  of 
the  name — supplies. 

"  And  the  children  of  Israel  did  so,  and  gathered,  some 
more,  some,  less." — Exod.  16.  17. 

"  I  cannot  go  beyond  the  word  of  the  Lord,  my  God,  to  do 
less  or  more. — Numb.  22.  18. 

"  Then  began  he  to  upbraid  the  cities  wherein  most  of  his 
mighty  works  were  done/' — Matt.  11.  20. 

"  Was  not  this  love  indeed  ? 
We  men  say  more,  swear  more,  but  indeed 
Our  shews  are  more  than  will."    Shaks.  Twelfth  Night. 

Such. 

"  Jabal  was  the  father  of  such  as  dwelt  in  tents." — Gen.  4. 

"  Thou  shalt  provide  able  men,  such  as  fear  God." — Ex.  18. 

"  Objects  of  importance  must  be  portrayed  by  objects  of 
importance  ;  such  as  have  grace,  by  things  graceful." — Camp 
Rhet.  1.  2. 

Such  here  supplies  the  place  of  a  name  or  noun,  but  it  re- 
tains its  attributive  sense,  and  the  name  may  be  added. 

Self  and  own. 

Self  is  said  to  have  been  originally  an  attribute ;  but  is 
now  used  as  an  intensive  word  to  give  emphasis  to  substi- 
tutes and  attributes.*  Sometimes  it  is  used  as  a  noun.  In 
the  plural,  it  forms  selves.  It  is  added  to  the  attributes  my, 
your,  own ;  as,  myself,  yourself,t  ourselves ;  and  to  him,  her, 

*  SeZf  has  the  force  of  the  Latin  ipse,  and  was  in  Saxon,  added  to  all 
cases ;  he-self,  his-self,  him-self.  So  in  Latin  tu,  te,  ipse,  was  used  in 
the  nominative. 

t  In  this  compound,  we  have  a  strong  confirmation  of  what  I  have  al- 
ledged  respecting  the  arrangement  of  you  in  the  singular  number,  when 
used  of  a  single  person.  Self  is  invariably  in  the  singular — selves  in 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  43 

them ;  as,  himself,  herself,  themselves.  And  though  annexed 
to  substitutes  in  the  objective  case,  these  words  are  indiffer- 
ently in  the  nominative  or  objective.  Self  is  never  added  to 
his,  their,  mine,  or  thine. 

The  compounds  himself,  herself,  thyself,  ourselves,  them- 
selves, may  be  placed  immediately  after  the  personal  substi- 
tute ;  as,  He  himself  wrote  a  letter  to  the  minister  ;  or  immedi- 
ately after  the  following  verb  or  its  object ;  as,  "  He  wrote  a 
letter  himself," — "  he  went  himself 'to  the  admiralty."  In  such 
phrases,  himself  not  only  gives  emphasis  to  the  affirmation, 
but  gives  to  an  implied  negative,  the  force  of  one  expressed, 
"  He  went  himself  to  the  minister,"  carries  with  it  a  direct 
negation  that  another  person  went.  In  negative  sentences,  it 
has  a  different  effect.  "  He  did  not  write  the  letter  himself,'1 
implies  strongly  that  he  wrote  it  by  an  agent,  or  had  an  agency 
in  procuring  it  to  be  written. 

These  compound  substitutes  are  used  after  verbs  when  re- 
ciprocal action  is  expressed  ;  as,  "  They  injure  themselves." 

Itself  is  added  to  names  for  emphasis;  "this  is  the  book 
itself." 

Own  is  an  attribute  denoting  property,  used  with  names  to 
render  the  sense  emphatical ;  as,  "  this  book  is  my  own.'1' 

Own  is  sometimes  a  substitute  ;  as,  "  He  came  unto  his 
own,  ami  his  own  received  him  not." — John  1.  11. 
"  This  is  an  invention  of  his  oivn." 

One,  other,  another,  none. 

The  attribute  one  is  very  often  a  substitute — other  is  used 
in  the  same  manner,  and  often  opposed  to  one.  "  All  ration- 
al or  deductive  evidence  is  derived  from  one  or  the  other  of 
these  two  sources." — Camp.  Rhet.  ch.  5.  To  render  these 
words  more  definite,  and  the  specification  of  the  alternative 


the  plural.  Now  if  you  is  to  be  classed  with  plurals  in  all  cases,  we 
must,  to  be  consistent,  apply  yourselves  to  a  single  person.  Yet  we 
make  the  proper  distinction — yourself  is  applied  to  one  person — your- 
selves to  more.  But  upon  the  principle  of  our  grammars,  that  you  must 
always  be  joined  to  a  verb  in  the  plural,  we  are  under  the  necessity  of 
saying,  "  You  yourself  were,"  when  we  address  a  single  person — which 
is  false  construction.  Whatever  verb  therefore  is  used  with  you  when 
applied  to  an  individual,  it  must  be  considered  as  a  verb  in  the  singular 
number. 


44  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

more  explicit,  the  definitive  the  is  placed  before  them ;  as, 
"  either  he  will  hate  the  one,  and  love  the  other." 

Another  has  sometimes  a  possessive  case  ;  as,  "  the  horse  is 
another's;"  but  this  form  of  speech  is  but  little  used. 

Another  is  the  Saxon  an,  one,  and  other — one  other.  It  is 
an  attribute  ;  but  often  used  as  a  substitute.  "  Let  another 
praise  thee,  and  not  thine  own  mouth." — Prov.  27.  2. 

None  [no  one]  is  often  a  substitute ;  as,  "  Ye  shall  lie 
down  and  none  shall  make  you  afraid." — Lev.  26.  6.  It  is 
used  in  the  plural  as  well  as  the  singular  number. 

The  cardinal  numbers  are  all  used  as  substitutes,  when 
the  things  to  which  they  refer  are  understood  by  the  train  of 
discourse,  and  no  ambiguity  is  created  by  the  omission  of  the 
name  ;  as,  "  The  rest  of  the  people  also  cast  lots,  to  bring  one 
of  ten  to  dwell  in  Jerusalem." — Neh.  11.  1. 

One  has  sometimes  the  possessive  form  ;  "  One's  person 
is  to  be  protected  by  law  ;"  and  frequently  the  plural  num- 
ber ;  as,  "  I  have  commanded  my  sanctified  ones,  and  I  have 
called  my  mighty  ones" — Isa.  13.  9. 

One,  when  contrasted  with  other,  sometimes  represents 
plural  names,  and  is  joined  with  a  plural  verb,  as  in  this  pas- 
sage; "-The  reason  why  the  one  are  ordinarily  taken  for 
real  qualities,  and  the  other,  only  for  bare  powers,  seems  to 
be,"  &LC.— Locke,  b.  2.  ch.  8.  25. 

One  and  another  have  a  peculiar  distributive  use  in  the 
following  and  the  like  expressions;  "  Brethren,  let  us  love 
one  another."  The  effect  of  these  words  seems  to  be,  to 
separate  an  act  affirmed  of  a  number  collectively,  and  distri- 
bute it  among  the  several  individuals — "  Let  us  love — let 
each  one  love  the  other."  "  If  ye  have  love  one  to  another" 
— "  by  love  serve  one  another."  One  another,  in  this  phrase- 
ology, have  the  comprehensive  sense  of  every  one.  "  By 
love  serve" — every  one  serve  the  other.  Each  is  used  in  a 
like  sense — They  love  each  other — that  is — they  love  — each 
love  the  other. 

Several 

Several  is  an  attribute,  denoting  originally  one  thing  sev- 
ered from  others.  But  this  sense  seems  to  be  now  confined 
to  technical  law  language  ;  as,  "  a  joint  and  several  estate.'1 
In  common  use,  it  is  always  plural,  expressive  of  an  indefi- 
nite number,  not  very  large.  It  is  frequently  a  substitute  ; 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  45 

as,  "Several  of  my  unknown  correspondents." — Spectator, 
281. 

Some. 

The  attribute  some  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  ;  as,  "  Some 
talk  of  subjects  they  do  not  understand  ;  others  praise  virtue 
who  do  not  practice  it." — Johnson. 

Each,  every,  either,  neither. 

Each  is  a  distributive  attribute,  used  to  denote  every  indi- 
vidual of  a  number,  separately  considered  ;  as,  "  The  king  of 
Israel  and  the  king  of  Judah  sat  each  on  his  throne."  "  Thou 
also  and  Aaron,  take  each  of  you  his  censer."  "  The  four 
beasts  had  each  of  them  six  wings." 

In  these  passages,  each  is  a  substitute  for  the  name  of  the 
persons  or  objects,  one  separate  from  the  other.* 

Every  denotes  all  the  individuals  of  a  number  considered 
separately  ;  it  is  therefore  a  distributive  attribute,  but  some- 
times a  substitute,  chiefly  in  the  law  style  ;  as,  "  every  of  the 
clauses  and  conditions."  It  is  generally  followed  by  the  name 
to  which  it  belongs,  or  by  the  cardinal  number  one. 

We  sometimes  see  every  separated  from  its  name  by  the 
definitive  the  and  an  attribute  of  the  superlative  degree ;  as, 
"  every  the  least  variation." — Locke. 

Either  and  neither  are  usually  classed  with  the  conjunctions ;  but  in 
strictness,  they  are  always  attributes  or  substitutes.  Their  correlatives 
or  and  nor,  though  considered  as  conjunctions,  belong  to  the  latter  class 
of  words — or  being  merely  an  abbreviation  of  other,  and  nor  being  the 
same  word  with  the  Saxon  negative  prefixed,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown. 

Either  and  or  denote  an  alternative  ;  as,  "  I  will  take  either 
road  at  your  pleasure."  That  is,  I  will  take  one  road  or  the 
other.  In  this  use,  either  is  an  attribute. 

Either  is  also  a  substitute  for  a  name ;  as,  "  Either  of  the 
roads  is  good."  It  also  represents  a  sentence  or  a  clause 
of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  No  man  can  serve  two  masters,  for  ei- 
ther he  will  hate  the  one  and  love  the  other,  or  else,"  &>c. 
Matt.  6.  2.  To  understand  the  true  import  of  either,  let  or 
be  also  reduced  back  to  its  original  orthography ;  "  for  either 
he  will  hate  the  one  and  love  the  other  ;  other  else  he  will 

*  Each  is  as  applicable  to  a  hundred  or  thousand  as  to  two.  "  The 
prince  had  a  body-guard  of  a  thousand  men,  each  of  whom  was  six  feet 
high," 


46  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

hold  to  the  one  and  despise  the  other."  Here  we  are  pre- 
sented with  the  sentence  as  it  would  have  stood  in  the  Saxon ; 
and  we  see  two  distinct  affirmations,  to  the  first  of  which  is 
prefixed  either,  and  to  the  last  other.  These  words  then  are 
substitutes  for  the  following  sentences,  when  they  are  intended 
to  be  alternative.  Either  and  or  are  therefore  signs  of  an 
alternative,  and  may  be  called  alternatives. 

Either  is  used  also  for  each;  as,  "  Two  thieves  were  cru- 
cified— on  either  side  one."  This  use  of  the  word  is  con- 
stantly condemned  by  critics,  and  as  constantly  repeated  by 
good  writers  ;  but  it  was  the  true  original  sense  of  the  word, 
as  appears  by  every  Saxon  author. 

Either  is  used  also  to  represent  an  alternative  of  attri- 
butes ;  as,  "  the  emotion  must  be  cither ,  not  violent  or  not 
durable.^—  Camp.  Rhet.  1.  2. 

Neither  is  not  cither,  from  the  Saxon  ne-either ;  and  nor 
is  ne-other,  not  other.  As  either  and  or  present  an  alterna- 
tive or  a  choice  of  two  things  ;  so  neither  and  nor  deny  both 
or  the  whole  of  any  number  of  particulars  ;  as,  "  Fight  neither 
with  small  nor  great." — 1  Kings,  22.  31.  Which  sentence, 
when  resolved,  stands  thus  ;  "  Fight  not  either  with  small,  not 
other  with  great."  Such  is  the  curious  machinery  of  lan- 
guage ! 

Neither  is  also  used  as  an  attribute  and  as  a  substitute  for 
a  name ;  as,  "  Neither  office  is  filled,  but  neither  of  the  of- 
fices will  suit  the  candidate." 

NOTE. — Or,  either,  nor  and  neither,  are  here  explained  in  their  true 
original  character ;  but  when  they  stand  for  sentences,  it  is  more  natu- 
ral to  consider  them  as  connectives,  under  which  head  I  have  arranged 
them. 

In  general,  any  attribute  [adjective]  which  describes  per- 
sons or  things  with  sufficient  clearness,  without  the  name  to 
which  it  strictly  belongs,  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  ;  as, 
"  The  rich  have  many  friends" — "  Associate  with  the  wise 
and  good" — "  The  future  will  resemble  the  past" — "  Such  is 
the  opinion  of  the  learned." 

ATTRIBUTES    OR    ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  in  grammar  are  words  which  denote  the  quali- 
ties inherent  in,  or  ascribed  to  things,  or  defining  them  ;  as, 
a  bright  sun  ;  a  splendid  equipage  ;  a  miserable  hut ;  a  mag- 
nificent house ;  an  honest  man ;  an  amiable  woman ;  liberal 
charity ;  false  honor  ;  a  quiet  conscience. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  47 

As  qualities  may  exist  in  different  degrees,  which  may  be 
compared  with  each  other,  suitable  modes  of  speech  are  de- 
vised to  express  these  comparative  degrees.  In  English, 
most  attributes  admit  of  three  degrees  of  comparison,  and  a 
few  admit  of  four.  There  are  therefore  four  degrees  of 
comparison. 

The  first  denotes  a  slight  degree  of  the  quality,  and  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  termination  isTi;  as,  reddish,  brownish,  yel- 
lowish. This  may  be  denominated  the  imperfect  degree  of 
the  attribute. 

The  second  denotes  such  a  degree  of  the  attribute  as  to 
constitute  an  absolute  or  distinct  quality  ;  as,  red,  brown, 
tfrrat,  small,  brave,  wise,.  This  is  called  the  positive  degree. 

The  third  denotes  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  a  quality, 
than  exists  in  another  object,  with  which  it  is  compared ;  as, 
greater,  smaller,  braver,  wiser.  This  is  called  the  compara- 
tive degree. 

The  fourth  denotes  the  utmost  or  least  degree  of  a  quali- 
ty ;  as,  bravest,  wisest,  poorest,  smallest.  This  "is  called  the 
superlative  degree. 

The  imperfect  degree  is  formed  by  adding  ish  to  an  attri- 
bute ;  as,  yellow,  yellowish.  If  the  attribute  ends  in  e,  this 
vowel  is  omitted  ;  as  white,  whitish. 

The  comparative  degree  is  formed  by  adding  r  to  adjec- 
tives ending  with  e ;  as,  wise,  wiser — and  by  adding  er  to 
words  ending  with  a  consonant ;  as,  cold,  colder— or  by  pre- 
fixing more  or  /ess  ;  as,  more  just,  less  noble. 

The  superlative  degree  is  formed  by  adding  st  to  attri- 
butes ending  with  e;  as,  wise,  zvisest — and  est  to  those 
which  end  with  a  consonant ;  as,  cold,  coldest — or  by  prefix- 
ing most  and  least ;  as,  most  brave,  least  charitable. 

Every  attribute  susceptible  of  comparison,  may  be  com- 
pared by  more  and  most,  less  and  least. 

All  monosyllables  admit  of  er  and  est,  and  dissyllables 
when  the  addition  may  be  easily  pronounced ;  as,  happy, 
happier,  happiest ;  lofty,  loftier,  loftiest.  But  few  words  of 
more  syllables  than  one  will  admit  of  er  and  est.  Hence 
most  attributes  of  more  syllables  than  one  are  compared  by 
more  and  most,  less  and  least ;  as,  more  fallible,  most  up- 
right, less  generous,  least  splendid. 

When  attributes  end  in  y  after  a  consonant,  this  letter  is 
dropped,  and  i  substituted  before  er  and  est;  as,  lofty,  loft- 
ier, loftiest. 


48  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

A  few  attributes  have  different  words  or  irregular  termi- 
nations for  expressing  the  degrees  of  comparison ;  as,  good, 
better,  best;  bad  or  evil,  ivorse,  worst ;  fore,  former,  first ; 
little,  less  or  lesser,  least;  much,  more,  most;  near,  near- 
er, nearest  or  next;  old,  older,  oldest  or  eldest ;  late,  later, 
latest  or  last. 

When  qualities  are  incapable  of  increase  or  diminution, 
the  words  which  express  them  do  not  admit  of  comparison. 
Such  are  the  numerals,  first,  second,  third,  &/c.,  attributes  of 
mathematical  figures,  as  square,  spherical,  rectangular — for 
it  will  readily  appear,  that  if  a  thing  is  first  or  square,  it  can- 
not be  more  or  less  so. 

The  sense  of  attributes  however  is  not  restricted  to  the 
modification,  expressed  by  the  common  signs  of  compari- 
son ;  but  may  be  varied  in  an  indefinite  number  of  ways,  by 
other  words.  Thus  the  attribute  very,  which  is  the  French 
vrai,  true,  formerly  written  veray,  is  much  used  intensively 
to  express  a  great  degree  of  a  quality,  but  not  the  greatest ; 
as,  very  wise  or  learned.  In  like  manner  are  used  much, 
far,  extremely,  exceedingly,  and  most  of  the  modifiers  in  ly. 

Some  adjectives,  from  particular  appropriate  uses,  have 
received  names,  by  which  they  are  distinguished.  But  the 
usual  classification  is  by  no  means  correct.  The  following 
distribution  seems  to  result  from  the  uses  of  the  words 
named. 

An  or  a,  the,  this,  that,  these,  those,  other,  another,  one, 
none,  some,  may  be  called  definitives,  from  their  office,  which 
is  to  limit  or  define  the  extent  of  the  name  to  which  they 
are  prefixed,  or  to  specify  particulars. 

My,  thy,  her,  our,  your,  their;  and  mine,  thine,  his,  when 
used  as  attributes,  with  names,  are  possessive  attributes,  as 
they  denote  possession  or  ownership.  Its  and  whose,  if 
ranked  with  attributes,  belong  to  the  same  class. 

Each  and  every  are  distributives,  but  they  may  be  classed 
with  the  definitives. 

Either  is  an  alternative,  as  is  or,  which  is  now  considered 
merely  as  a  connective. 

Own  is  an  intensive  adjective.  The  words  to  which  self 
is  affixed,  himself,  myself,  themselves,  yourself,  yourselves, 
'ourselves,  thyself,  itself,  may  be  denominated  intensive  sub- 
stitutes, or,  for  brevity,  intensives.  Or  they  may  be  called 
compound  substitutes. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  49 

VERB. 

The  verb  is  a  primary  part  of  speech,  and  of  the  most  im- 
portance. The  uses  of  the  verb  are, 

1st.  To  affirm,  assert  or  declare ;  as,  the  sun  shines  ; 
John  loves  study  ;  God  is  just ;  and  negatively,  avarice  is 
not  commendable. 

2d,  To  command,  exhort  or  invite  ;  as,  go,  attend,  let  us 
observe. 

3d.  To  pray,  request,  entreat ;  as,  O  may  the  spirit  of 
grace  dwell  in  us. 

4th.  To  inquire  or  question ;  as,  does  it  rain  ?  will  he 
come? 

From  the  various  uses  and  significations  of  verbs,  have 
originated  several  divisions  or  classes.  The  only  one  in 
English  which  seems  to  be  correct,  and  sufficiently  compre- 
hensive, is  into  transitive  and  intransitive.  To  these  may 
be  added  a  combination  of  the  verb  be,  with  certain  auxilia- 
ries and  participles,  which  is  called  a  passive  verb,  or  rather 
the  passive  form  of  the  verb.* 

1.  A  transitive  verb  denotes  action  or  energy,  which  is 
exerted  upon  some  object,  or  in  producing  some  effect.     In 
natural    construction,  the  word    expressing   the   object,  fol- 
lows the  verb,   without  the  intervention  of  any  other  word, 
though  the  order  may  be  sometimes  varied.     Thus,  "  ridi- 
cule provokes   anger/'    is  a  complete  proposition — ridicule 
is  the  agent  or  nominative  word,  which  causes  the  action — 
provoke  is  the  verb,  or  affirmation  of  an  act — anger  is  the 
object  or  effect  produced,  following  the  transitive  verb  pro- 
voke. 

"  The  wind  propels  a  ship,"  is  the  affirmation  of  an  act  of 
the  wind  exerted  on  a  ship.  Wind  is  the  agent,  propels,  the 
verb,  and  ship,  the  object. 

2.  An   intransitive   verb    denotes   simple   being  or  exist- 
ence in  a  certain  state  ;    as,  to  be,  to  rest ;   or  it  denotes  ac- 
tion, which  is  limited  to  the  subject.     Thus,  "  John  sleeps," 
is  an  affirmation,  in  which  John,  the  nominative  to  sleeps, 

*  The  common  distribution  into  active,  neuter  and  passive,  is  very  ob- 
jectionable. Many  of  our  neuter  verbs  imply  action  in  a  pre-eminent 
degree,  as  to  run,  to  walk,  to  fly  ;  and  the  young  learner  cannot  easily 
conceive  why  such  verbs  are  not  called  active. 

5 


50  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

is  the  subject  of  the  affirmation  ;  sleeps  is  a  verb  intransi- 
tive, affirming  a  particular  thing  of  John,  which  extends  to 
no  other  object. 

3.  The  passive  form  of  the  verb  in  English,  is  composed 
of  certain  auxiliaries  and  participles  with  the  verb  be.  It 
denotes  passion  or  suffering ;  that  is,  that  the  subject  of  the 
affirmation  or  nominative  is  affected  by  the  action  affirmed  ; 
as,  "  John  is  convinced."  "  Laura  is  loved  and  admired." 

In  this  form  of  the  verb,  the  agent  and  object  change 
places.  In  the  transitive  form,  the  agent  precedes  the  verb, 
and  the  object  follows ;  as,  "  John  has  convinced  Moses." 
In  the  passive  form,  the  order  is  changed,  and  the  agent  fol- 
lows the  verb,  preceded  by  a  preposition;  as,  "  Moses  is 
convinced  by  John." 

To  correspond  with  their  nominatives,  verbs  are  used  in 
both  numbers,  and  with  the  three  persons  in  each. 

As  action  and  being  may  be  mentioned  as  present,  past 
or  future,  verbs  have  modifications  to  express  time,  which 
are  called  tenses.  And  as  action  and  being  may  be  repre- 
sented in  various  ways,  verbs  have  various  modifications  to 
answer  these  purposes,  called  modes.  Hence  to  verbs  be- 
long person,  number,  tense  and  mode. 

The  persons  which  have  been  already  explained,  are,  I, 
thou  or  you,  he,  she,  it,  in  the  singular'number  ;  in  the  plu- 
ral, we,  ye  or  you,  they.  The  numbers  have  been  before 
explained. 

TENSES. 

There  are  six  teases,  modifications  or  combinations  of  the 
verb  to  express  time.  Each  of  these  is  divided  into  two 
forms,  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  the  definite  or  pre- 
cise time  from  the  indefinite.  These  may  be  thus  explained 
and  exemplified : — 

Present  Tense,  indefinite. 

This  form  of  the  present  tense  affirms  or  denies  action  or 
being,  in  present  time,  without  limiting  it  with  exactness  to 
a  given  point.  It  expresses  also  facts  which  exist  generally, 
at  all  times,  general  truths,  attributes  which  are  permanent, 
habits,  customary  actions,  and  the  like,  without  reference  to 
a  specific  time  ;  as,  God  is  infinitely  great  and  just ;  man  is 
imperfect  and  dependent ;  plants  spring  from  the  earth ; 
oirdsfy;  fishes  swim. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  £1 

Present  Tense,  definite. 

This  form  expresses  the  present  time  with  precision ; 
usually  denoting  action  or  being,  which  corresponds  in  time 
with  another  action  ;  as,  /  am  writing ,  while  you  are  wait- 
ing. 

Past  Tense,  indefinite. 

This  form  of  the  past  tense  represents  action  which  took 
place  at  a  given  time  past,  however  distant,  and  completely 
past ;  as,  "  In  six  days,  God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth."  "  Alexander  conquered  the  Persians."  "  Scipio 
was  as  virtuous  as  brave."  "  The  Earl  of  Chatham  was  an 
eloquent  statesman." 

Past  Tense,  definite  [imperfect.] 

This  form  represents  an  action  as  taking  place  and  unfin- 
ished in  some  specified  period  of  past  time  ;  as,  "  I  was 
standing  at  the  door  when  the  procession  passed." 

Perfect  Tense,  indefinite. 

This  form  of  the  perfect  tense  represents  an  action  com- 
pletely past,  and  often  at  no  great  distance,  but  the  time  not 
specified  ;  as,  "  /  have  accomplished  my  design"  But  if  a 
particular  time  is  named,  the  tense  must  be  the  past ;  as, 
"  I  accomplished  my  design  last  week."  "  I  have  seen  my 
friend  last  week,"  is  not  correct  English.  In  this  respect, 
the  French  idiom  is  different  from  the  English ;  for,  "  J'  ai 
vu  mon  ami  hier,"  is  good  French,  but  "  I  have  seen  my 
friend  yesterday,"  is  not  good  English.  The  words  must 
be  translated,  "  I  saw  my  friend  yesterday."  No  fault  is 
more  common  than  a  mistranslation  of  this  tense. 

It  is  to  be  noted  however  that  this  perfect  indefinite  tense, 
is  that  in  which  we  express  continued  or  repeated  action. 
"  My  father  has  lived  about  eighty  years."  "  The  king  has 
reigned  more  than  forty  years."  "  He  has  been  frequently 
heard  to  lament." — Life  of  Cowper.  We  use  it  also  when 
a  specified  past  time  is  represented,  if  that  time  is  expressed 
as  a  part  of  the  present  period.  Thus,  although  we  cannot 
say,  "  We  have  been  together  yesterday,"  we  usually  say, 
"  We  have  been  together  this  morning,  or  this  evening." 
We  even  use  this  tense  in  mentioning  events  which  happen- 
ed at  a  greater  distance  of  time,  if  we  connect  that  time  with 
the  present ;  as,  "  His  brother  has  visited  him  once  within 


52  ~  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

two  years."     "  He  has   not  seen  his  sister,  since  the  year 
1800." 

Perfect  Tense,  definite. 

This  form  represents  an  action  as  just  finished ;  as,  "I 
have  been  reading  a  history  of  the  revolution  in  France." 

Prior-Past  Tense,  indefinite  [pluperfect.] 
This  form  of  the  prior  past   tense   expresses  an  action 
which  was  past  at  or  before  some  other  past  time  specified  ; 
as,    "  He  had  received  the  news  before  the  messenger  ar- 
rived." 

Prior-Past,  definite. 

This  form  denotes  an  action  to  be  just  past,  at  or  before 
another  time  specified ;  as,  "  I  had  been  reading  your  letter 
when  the  messenger  arrived." 

Future  Tense,  indefinite. 

This  form  of  the  future  tense  gives  notice  of  an  event  to 
happen  hereafter  ;  as,  "  Your  son  will  obtain  a  commission 
in  the  navy."  "  We  shall  have  a  fine  season." 

Future  Tense,  definite.  ' 

This  form  expresses  an  action  which  is  to  take  place  and 
be  unfinished  at  a  specified  future  time  ;  as,  "  He  will  be 
preparing  for  a  visit  at  the  time  you  arrive." 

Prior-Future,  indefinite. 

This  form  of  the  future  tense  denotes  an  action  which  will 
be  past  at  a  future  time  specified ;  as,  "  They  will  have  per- 
formed their  task,  by  the  appointed  hour." 

Prior-Future,  definite. 

This  form  represents  an  action  which  will  be  just  past  at 
a  future  specified  time  ;  as,  "  We  shall  have  been  making 
preparations,  a  week  before  our  friends  arrive."* 

*  The  common  names  and  distribution  of  the  tenses,  are  so  utterly  in- 
correct and  incompetent  to  give  a  just  idea  of  their  uses,  that  I  have  ven- 
tured to  offer  a  new  division,  retaining  the  old  names,  as  far  as  truth  will 
warrant.  The  terms  prior-past,  and  prior-future,  are  so  perfectly  de- 
scriptive of  the  tenses  arranged  under  them,  that  I  cannot  but  think  they 
will  be  well  received.  The  distinction  of  indefinite  and  definite  is  not 
wholly  new  ;  but  I  have  never  seen  the  definite  forms  displayed,  though 
they  are  as  necessary  as  the  indefinite  forms.  Indeed,  I  see  not  how  a 
foreigner  can  learn  our  language,  as  the  tenses  are  commonly  distributed 
and  defined. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  53 

In  the  use  of  the  present  tense,  the  following  things  are 
to  be  noticed. 

1.  The  present  tense  is  customarily  used  to  express  fu- 
ture time,  when   by  any  mode  of  expression,  the  mind  is 
transported  forward  to  the  time,  so  as  to  conceive  it  pres- 
ent;   as,  "I  cannot  determine,  till  the  mail  arrives."     "  As 
soon  as  it  is  light,  we  shall  depart."     "  When  he  has  an  op- 
portunity,  he  will  write."     The  words  till,  when,  as  soon  as, 
carry  the  mind  to  the  time  of  an  event  to  happen,  and  we 
speak  of  it  as  present. 

2.  By  an  easy  transition,  the  imagination  passes  from  an 
author  to  his  writings;  these  being  in  existence  and  present, 
though  long  after  his  decease,  we  substitute  the  writer's  name 
for  his  works,  and  speak  of  him  as  living,  or  in  the  present 
tense  ;    thus,  Milton  resembles  Homer  in  sublimity  and  in- 
vention,  as  Pope  resembles  Virgil,  in  smoothness  of  versifi- 
cation.    Plato  is  fanciful ;  Aristotle  is  profound. 

3.  It  gives  great  life  and  effect  to  description,  in  prose  or 
verse,  to  represent  past  events  as  present ;  to  introduce  them 
to  the  view  of  the  reader  or  hearer,  as  having  a  present  ex- 
istence.    Hence  the  frequent  use  of  the  present  tense  for  the 
future,  by  the  historian,  the  poet  and  the  orator  : — 

"  She  spoke  ;  Minerva  burns  to  meet  the  war  ; 
And  now  heaven's  empress  calls  the  blazing  car; 
At  her  command  rush  forth  the  steeds  divine  ; 
Rich  with  immortal  gold,  the  trappings  shine. " 

Iliad,  5. 

The  definite  tenses,  it  will  be  observed,  are  formed  by  the 
participle  of  the  present  tense,  and  the  substantive  verb,  be. 
This  participle  always  expresses  present  time,  even  when 
annexed  to  a  past  or  future  tense ;  for  /  was  writing,  de- 
notes, that,  at  the  past  time  mentioned,  the  action  was  pres- 
ent ;  /  shall  be  writing,  denotes  future  time,  but  an  action 
then  to  be  present. 

The  past  tense  of  every  regular  verb  ends  in  ed — d  being 
added  to  a  verb  ending  in  e  ;  and  ed  to  a  verb  with  other 
terminations  ;  as,  hate,  hated  ;  look,  looked. 

The  future  tense  is  formed  by  the  present  tense  of  shall 
and  will;  for,  I  shall  go,  he  will  go,  are  merely  an  appro- 
priate use  of  /  shall  to  go,  I  will  to  go.  See  an  explanation 
of  these  words  under  the  head  of  auxiliaries. 


54  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

There  are  other  modes  of  expressing  future  time  ;  as,  "  I 
am  going  to  write" — "  I  am  about  to  write."  -These  have 
been  called  the  inceptive  future,  as  they  note  the  commence- 
ment of  an  action,  or  an  intention  to  commence  an  action 
without  delay. 

We  have  another  mode  of  expression,  which  does  not 
strictly  and  positively  foretell  an  action,  yet  it  implies  a  ne- 
cessity of  performing  an  act,  and  clearly  indicates  that  it  will 
take  place.  For  example,  "  I  have  to  pay  a  sum  of  money 
to-morrow."  That  is,  I  am  under  a  present  necessity  or  ob- 
ligation to  do  a  future  act. 

The  substantive  verb  followed  by  a  radical  verb,  forms 
another  idiomatic  expression  of  future  time ;  as,  "  John  is 
to  command  a  regiment."  "  Eneas  went  in  search  of  the 
seat  of  an  empire  which  was,  one  day,  to  command  the 
world."  The  latter  expression  is  a  future-past — that  is,  past 
as  to  the  narrator ;  but  future  as  to  the  event,  at  the  time 
specified,  f 


Mode,  in  grammar,  is  the  manner  of  representing  action 
and  being,  or  the  wishes  and  determinations  of  the  mind. 
This  is  performed  by  inflections  of  the  verb,  or  by  combina- 
tions of  verbs  with  auxiliaries  and  participles,  and  by  their 
various  positions. 

As  there  are  scarcely  two  authors  who  are  agreed  in  the 
number  and  denominations  of  the  modes  in  English,  I  shall 
offer  a  distribution  of  the  verbs,  and  a  display  of  their  in- 
flections and  combinations,  somewhat  different  from  any 
which  I  have  seen. 

1.  The  first  and  most  simple  form  of  the  verb,  is,  the  verb 
without  inflections,  and  unconnected   with   persons.      This 
form  usually  has  the  prefix  to ;  as,  to  love. 

This  form  of  the  verb,  not  being  restricted  to  person  or 
number,  is  usually  called  the  Infinitive  Mode. 

2.  Another  use  of  the  verb  is  to  affirm,  assert  or  declare 
some   action  or  existence,  either  positively,  as,  he  runs,  or 
negatively,  as,  you  are  not  in  health.     This  form  is  called  the 
Indicative  Mode. 

3.  Another  office  of  the  verb  is  to  command,  direct,  ask, 
ar  exhort ;    as,  arise,  make  haste,  let  us  be  content.     This  is 
called  the  Imperative  Mode. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  55 

4.  Another  use  of  verbs  is  to  represent  actions  or  events 
which  are  uncertain,  conditional  or  contingent;  as,  if  he  shall 
go ;  if  they  would  attend.  This  is  called  the  Subjunctive 
Mode ;  but  would  better  be  denominated  the  Conditional. 
The  indicative  becomes  conditional,  by  means  of  words  used 
to  express  condition ;  as,  if,  though,  unless,  whether. 

The  MODES  then  are  four — the  Infinitive,  the  Indicative, 
the  Imperative,  and  the  Subjunctive. 

It  may  also  be  observed  that  the  combinations,  and  ar- 
rangements of  our  verbs  and  auxiliaries  to  express  negative 
and  interrogative  propositions,  are  really  modes  of  the  verb, 
and  a  place  might  be  assigned  to  the  verb  for  each  purpose, 
were  it  not  for  the  inconvenience  of  having  modes  of  modes. 
For  the  sake  of  distinction,  I  denominate  these  verbs  inter- 
rogative and  negative,  and  have  exhibited  the  conjugation  of 
each. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  are  derivatives  from  verbs,  formed  by  particu- 
lar terminations,  and  having  the  sense  of  verbs,  attributes  or 
names. 

There  are  two  species  of  participles — one  denoting  pres- 
ent time,  and  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  verb  ;  as,  turn, 
turning :  or,  when  the  verb  ends  with  e,  by  dropping  that 
letter  and  adding  ing ;  as,  place,  placing.  But  e  is  retained 
in  dyeing,  from  dye,  to  color,  to  distinguish  it  from  dying, 
the  participle  of  die ;  in  which  word,  y  is  used  to  prevent 
the  duplication  of  i.  In  singeing,  from  singe,  e  is  retained 
to  soften  g,  and  to  distinguish  the  word  from  singing ;  so  also 
in  twingeing. 

This  participle  of  the  present  tense  is  used,  as  before  ob- 
served, to  form  the  definite  tenses.  But  it  often  loses  the 
sense  of  the  verb,  and  becomes  an  attribute  ;  as,  a  loving 
friend,  lasting  friendship.  In  this  use,  it  admits  of  compar- 
ison by  more  and  less,  most  and  least ;  as,  more  lasting,  less 
saving,  most  promising. 

This  participle  also  becomes  an  adverb  or  modifier  by  re- 
ceiving the  termination  ly  ;  as,  lovingly,  laughingly :  and  this 
species  of  modifiers  admits  of  comparison ;  as,  more  lovingly, 
most  charmingly. 

This  participle  also  becomes  a  name  and  admits  of  the 
definitive ;  as,  "  the  burning  of  London  in  1666."  In  this 
capacity,  it  takes  the  plural  form ;  as,  "  the  overflowings  of 


56  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

the  Nile" — «  He  seeth  all  his  goings.9'  And  sometimes  the 
plural  is  used  when  a  modifier  is  attached  to  the  participle  ; 
as,  "  the  goings  out,  the  comings  in." — Ezek.  43.  11.  But 
this  use  of  the  participle  is  not  esteemed  elegant,  nor  is  it 
common. 

In  a  few  instances,  the  participle  in  ing  becomes  a  name 
by  receiving  the  termination  ness  ;  as,  willingness,  from  will- 
ing. 

The  other  species  of  participle  is  formed  from  the  verb,  by 
adding  d  or  ed,  and  in  regular  verbs,  it  corresponds  exactly 
with  the  past  time  ;  as,  loved,  preceded.  This  may  be  called 
the  participle  of  the  perfect  tense. 

This  participle,  when  its  verb  is  transitive,  may  be  joined 
with  the  verb  be,  in  all  its  inflections,  to  form  the  passive  form 
of  a  verb,  and  the  participle,  in  such  combination,  is  called 
passive.  But 

This  participle,  when  formed  from  an  intransitive  verb,  can- 
not, except  in  a  few  instances,  be  joined  to  the  substantive 
verb,  or  used  in  a  passive  sense ;  but  it  unites  with  the  other 
auxiliaries. 

This  participle  often  loses  its  verbal  character,  and  be- 
comes an  attribute  ;  as,  a  concealed  plot,  a  painted  house.  In 
this  character,  it  admits  of  comparison  ;  as,  "  a  more  ad- 
mired artist,"  "a  most  respected  magistrate;"  and  a  few  of 
these  verbal  attributes  receive  the  termination  ly,  and  be- 
come modifiers ;  as,  pointedly,  more  conceitedly,  most  deject- 
edly. 

Those  verbs,  whose  past  tense  and  participle  end  in  ed, 
are  deemed  regular.  All  which  deviate  from  this  rule,  are 
deemed  irregular,  and  their  participles  of  the  perfect  tense 
end  mostly  in  t,  n  and  g.  A  list  of  them  will  be  found  in  the 
sequel. 

AUXILIARIES. 

In  English,  a  few  monosyllabic  verbs  are  chiefly  employ- 
ed to  form  the  modes  and  tenses  of  other  verbs,  and  from 
this  use,  are  denominated  auxiliaries  or  helping  verbs. 
These  are  followed  by  other  verbs,  without  the  prefix  to; 
as,  "  he  may  go ;"  though  they  were  originally  principal 
verbs,  and  some  of  them  still  retain  that  character,  as  well 
as  that  of  auxiliaries. 

The  verbs  which  are  always  auxiliary  to  others,  are  may, 
can,  shall,  must;  those  which  are  sometimes  auxiliaries, 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  57 

and  sometimes  principal  verbs,  are  will,  have,  do  and  be.  To 
these  may  be  added  need  and  dare. 

May  conveys  the  idea  of  liberty  or  permission  ;  as,  "  he 
may  go,  if  he  will."  Or  it  denotes  possibility ;  as,  "he  may 
have  written  or  not."* 

Can  has  the  sense  of  to  be  able. 

Shall,  in  its  primitive  sense,  denotes  to  be  obliged,  coin- 
ciding nearly  with  ought ;  which  sense  it  retains  in  the  Ger- 
man. But  this  signification,  though  evidently  the  root  of 
the  present  uses  of  this  word,  is  much  obscured.  The  fol- 
lowing remarks  will  illustrate  the  several  uses  of  will  and 
shall. 

Will  has  a  common  origin  with  the  Latin  volo.  Hence 
the  German  wollen,  the  old  English  woll,  and  the  present 
contraction  won't,  that  is,  woll-not.^ 

This  was  originally  a  principal  verb,  and  is  still  used  as 
such  in  our  language.  It  denotes  the  act  of  the  mind  in  de- 
termining, or  a  determination  ;  for  he  wills  to  go,  and  he  will 
go,  are  radically  of  the  same  import. 

When  a  man  expresses  his  own  determination  of  mind,  / 
will,  we  are  accustomed  to  consider  the  event,  or  act  willed, 
as  certain ;  for  we  naturally  connect  the  power  to  act,  with 
the  intention ;  hence  we  make  the  declaration  of  will  a 
'  ground  of  confidence,  and  by  an  easy  association  of  ideas, 
we  connect  the  declaration  with  an  obligation  to  carry  the 
determination  into  effect.  Hence  will  expressed  by  a  per- 
son himself,  came  to  denote  a  promise. 

But  when  a  person  declares  the  will  of  another,  he  is  not 
supposed  to  possess  the  power  to  decide  for  him,  and  to 
carry  his  will  into  effect.  He  merely  offers  an  opinion, 
grounded  on  information  or  probable  circumstances,  which 
give  him  more  or  less  confidence  of  an  event  depending  on 
another's  will.  Hence  will  in  the  second  and  third  person 
simply  foretells,  or  expresses  an  opinion  of  what  will  take 
place. 

Shall,  in  many  of  its  inflections,  retains  its  primitive  sense 
— to  be  obliged  or  bound  in  duty  ;  but  in  many  of  its  uses, 


*  The  primitive  idea  expressed  by  may  was  power  ;  Sax.  magan,  to 
be  able. 

t  It  is  supposed  that  the  Roman  v  was  pronounced  as  our  w, 


58  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

its  sense  is  much  varied.  In  the  first  person,  it  merely  fore- 
tells ;  as,  "  I  shall  go  lo  New  York  to-morrow>"  In  this 
phrase,  the  word  seems  to  have  no  reference  to  obligation ; 
nor  is  it  considered  by  a  second  person  as  imposing  an  obli- 
gation on  the  person  uttering  it.  But  when  shall  is  used  in 
the  second  and  third  persons,  it  resumes  its  primitive  sense, 
or  one  nearly  allied  to  it,  implying  obligation ;  as,  when  a 
superior  commands  with  authority,  you  shall  go ;  or  imply- 
ing a  right  in  the  second  and  third  person  to  expect,  and 
hence  denoting  a  promise  in  the  speaker ;  as,  "  you  shall 
receive  your  wages."  This  is  radically  saying,  "  you  ought 
to  receive  your  wages;"  but  this  right  in  the  second  person 
to  receive,  implies  an  obligation  in  the  person  speaking  to 
pay.  Hence  shall  in  the  first  person  foretells;  in  the 
second,  promises,  commands,  or  expresses  determination. 
When  shall,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  is  uttered  with 
emphasis,  it  expresses  determination  in  the  speaker,  and 
implies  an  authority  to  enforce  the  act.  "  You  shall  go." 

Hence  proceeds  the  impropriety  of  using  shall,  when  the 
Supreme  Being  is  supposed  to  be  the  person  addressed  or 
spoken  of.  The  Lord  shall  fight  for  us— the  Lord  shall 
destroy  them — the  Lord  shall  comfort  Zion.  "  Thou  shalt 
not  suffer  thy  Holy  One  to  see  corruption."  Acts  13/35. 
See  Ps.  16.  10.  Acts  2.  27. 

No  human  being  has  a  right  to  use  words  respecting  God 
which  imply  authority  or  command.  In  the  examples  cited, 
will  is  the  proper  auxiliary,  expressing  prediction. 

But  when  shall  is  preceded  by  another  word,  as  by  when, 
while,  whoever,  if,  provided,  &LG.  it  ceases,  in  the  second  and 
third  person,  to  express  promise,  command  or  determination; 
as,  When  you  shall  have  read  the  books;  while  he  shall  be 
present ;  whoever  shall  put  away  his  wife  ;  if  you  shall  see 
my  friend  ;-  provided  you  or  he  shall  receive  information.  In 
these  and  similar  examples,  shall  refers  to  event  merely, 
without  implying  obligation,  promise  or  command. 

Must  expresses  necessity,  and  has  no  variation  for  per- 
son, number  or  tense. 

Do  is  a  principal  and  a  transitive  verb,  signifying  to  act 
or  make ;  but  is  used  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  as  an 
auxiliary,  to  give  emphasis  to  a  declaration,  to  denote  con- 
trast, or  to  supply  the  place  of  the  principal  verb. 

"  It  would  have  been  impossible  for  Cicero  to  inflame  the 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  59 

minds  of  the  people  to  so  high  a  pitch  against  oppression, 
considered  in  the  abstract,  as  he  actually  did  inflame  them 
against  Verres  the  oppressor." — Camp.  Rhet.  I.  10.  Here 
did  expresses  emphasis. 

"It  was  hardly  possible  that  he  should  not  distinguish 
you  as  he  has  done."1—  Cowp.  Let.  40.  Here  done ,  stands  in 
the  place  of  distinguished  you.  For  it  must  be  observed 
that  when  do  is  the  substitute  for  another  verb,  it  supplies 
the  place  not  only  of  the  verb,  but  of  the  object  of  the  verb. 

"  He  loves  not  plays 

As  thou  dost,  Antony." 

That  is,  as  thou  lovest  plays. 

Do  is  also  used  in  negative  and  interrogative  sentences ; 
the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  indicative  mode  being 
chiefly  formed  by  this  auxiliary ;  as,  "I  do  not  reside  in 
Boston."  Does  John  hold  a  commission? 

Have  is  also  a  principal  and  transitive  verb,  denoting  to 
possess;  but  much  used  as  an  auxiliary  ;  as,  "He  has  lately 
been  to  Hamburg."  It  is  often  used  to  supply  the  place 
of  a  principal  verb  or  participle,  preventing  a  repetition  of 
it,  and  the  object  after  it ;  as,  "  I  have  not  seen  Paris,  but 
my  brother  has" — that  is,  has  seen  Paris. 

Equally  common  and  extensive  is  the  use  of  be,  denoting 
existence,  and  hence  called  the  substantive  verb.  Either  in 
the  character  of  a  principal  verb-,  or  an  auxiliary,  it  is  found 
in  almost  every  sentence  of  the  language. 

The  inflection  of  a  verb,  in  all  the  modes,  tenses,  num- 
bers and  persons,  is  termed  Conjugation.  The  English 
verbs  have  few  inflections,  or  changes  of  termination ;  most 
of  the  tenses  and  modes  being  formed  by  means  of  the  aux- 
iliaries-. 

NOTE. — In  the  following  conjugations,  a  small  n  in  an  Italic  charac- 
ter, is  inserted  in  the  place  where  not  should  stand  in  negative  sen- 
tences. The  same  place  is  generally  occupied  by  never,  but  not  in  every 
case.  It  is  believed  this  letter  will  be  very  useful,  especially  to  foreign- 
ers. The  learner  may  conjugate  the  verb  with  or  without  not,  at  pleasure. 

CONJUGATION    OF    THE    AUXILIARIES. 
MAY. 

Present  Tense. 

dar.  Plural. 


1st  Person,         I  may  n  We  may  n 


60 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


2d  Person, 


3d  Person, 


C  Thou  mayest  n 
I  You  may  n* 
C  mas.  He  may  n 
<.fem.    She  may  n. 
([  neut.  It  may  n 


I  might  n 
C  Thou  mightest  n 
\  You  might  n 

He  might  TI 

Present  Tense. 


Past  Tense. 


CAN. 


Singular. 

1  can  n 

C  Thou  canst  n 
(  You  can  n 

He  can  n 


Plural. 
We  can  TI 
C  Ye  can  n 

(  You  can  n 
They  can  TI 


Singular. 
I  could  n 
Thou  couldst  7i 
You  could  n 
He  could  7i 


Ye  may  n 
You  may  n 
They  may  n 


Wfe  might  n 
Ye  might  n 
You  might  n 
They  might  TI 


Past  Tense. 


Plural. 

"We  could  7i 
C  Ye  could  n 
£  You  could  n 

They  could  TI 


SHALL. 

Present  Tense. 

I  shall  n  We  shall  n 

C  Thou  shalt  n  C  Ye  shall  n 
(  You  shall  7i  £  You  shall  TI 

He  shall  n  They  shall 


Past  Tense. 

I  should  TI.  We  should  n 

C  Thou  shouldst  n  C  Ye  should  n 
(  You  should  ?i  £  You  should  TI 

He  should  n  They  should  TI 


Present  Tense. 
I  will  TI  We  will  n 

Thou  wilt  TI        C  Ye  will  n 
You  will  n  I  You  will  n 

He  will  n  They  will  n 


WILL. 


Past  Tense. 
I  would  n  We  would  TI 

Thou  wouldst  n    $  Ye  would  n 
You  would  n        (  You  would  n 
He  would  TI  They  would  n 


NOTE. —  Will,  when  a  principal  verb,  is  regularly  conjugated:  I  will, 
thou  wiliest,  he  wills.     Past  tense,  I  willed. 

MUST. 

Must  has  no  change  of  termination,  and  is  joined  with  verbs  only  in 
the  following  tenses. 

Present  Tense. 

I  must  n  love  We  must  n  love 

C  Thou  must  n  love  (  Ye  must  n  love 

(  You  must  n  love  (  You  must  n  love 

He  must  n  love  They  must  n  love 


*  It  may  be  remarked  once  for  all,  that  thou  and  ye  are  the  second 
person  used  in  the  sacred  style  ;  and  sometimes  in  other  grave  discourses, 
In  all  other  cases,  you  is  the  second  person  of  the  singular  number,  as 
well  as  of  the  plural.  It  is  not  one  of  the  most  trivial  absurdities  which 
the  student  must  now  encounter  at  every  step,  in  the  study  of  English 
grammar,  that  he  meets  with  you  in  the  plural  number  only,  though  he 
finds  it  the  reoresentative  of  an  individual. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  61 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I  must  n  have  loved  We  must  n  have  loved 

C  Thou  must  n  have  loved  C  Ye  must  n  have  loved 

\  You  must  n  have  loved  (  You  must  n  have  loved 

He  must  n  have  loved  They  must  n  have  loved 

DO. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 

I  do  ?i  love  We  do  n  love 

C  Thou  dost  n  love  C  Ye  do  n  love 

\  You  do  n  love  (  You  do  n  love 

He  does  or  doth  n  love  They  do  n  love 

Past  Tense. 

I  did  n  love  We  did  n  love 

C  Thou  didst  n  love  C  Ye  did  n  love 

\  You  did  n  love  (  You  did  n  love 

He  did  n  love  They  did  n  love 

Infinitive  Mode.  Participles. 

To  do  Doing,  done,  having  done. 

NOTE. — In  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense,  doth  is  used 
in  sacred  and  solemn  language ;  does  in  common  and  familiar  language. 
This  verb,  when  principal  and  transitive,  has  all  the  tenses  and  modes ; 
I  have  done,  I  had  done,  I  will  do,  &c. 

HAVE. 

Infinitive  Mode,  Present  Tense. — To  have. 

Perfect  Tense. — To  have  had. 
Participle  of  the  Present  Tense. — Having. 

Of  the  Perfect  Tense.— Had. 
Compound.- — Having  had. 

Indicative  Mode. 
Present  Tense.  Past  Tense. 


I  have  n  We  have  n 

C  Thou  hast  n  C  Ye  have  n 
(  You  have  n  (  You  have  n 

He  has  or  hath  n*  They  have  n 


I  had  n  We  had  n 

]  Thou  hadst  n  C  Ye  had  n 

[  You  had  n  (  You  had  n 
"  He  had  n  They  had  n 


NOTE. — In  the  foregoing  tenses,  this  verb  is  used  either  as  a  principal 
verb  or  an  auxiliary. 

Perfect  Tense. 

I  have  n  had  We  have  n  had 

C  Thou  hast  n  had  C  Ye  have  n  had 

(  You  have  n  had  £  You  have  n  had 

He  has  or  hath  n  had  They  have  n  had 

*  Hath  is  used  in  the  solemn  style ;  has  in  the  familiar. . 

6 


62  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

Prior-Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I  had  n  had  We  had  n  had 

C  Thou  hadst  n  had  C  Ye  had  n  had 

\  You  had  n  had  £  You  had  n  had 
He  had  n  had  They  had  n  had 

NOTE. — In  these  tenses,  the  perfect  and  prior-past ,  this  verb  is  always 
principal  and  transitive. 

Future  Tense. 

In  this  tense  the  verb  is  principal  or  auxiliary,  with  the 
same  form  of  conjugation. 

The  following  form  foretells : 

I  shall  n  have  We  shall  n  have 

C  Thou  wilt  n  have  C  Ye  will  n  have 

(  You  will  n  have  £  You  will  n  have 

He  will  n  have  They  will  n  have 

The  following  form  promises,  commands  or  determines  : 

I  will  n  have  We  will  n  have 

C  Thou  shalt  n  have  C  Ye  shall  n  have 

(  You  shall  n  have  (  You  shall  n  have 

He  shall  n  have  They  shall  n  have 

Prior-Future. 

This  tense  foretells,  and  is  used  only  when  the  verb  '  is 
principal. 

I  shall  n  have  had  We  shall  n  have  had 

C  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  have  had  C  Ye  shall  or  will  n*have  had 

(  You  shall  or  will  n  have  had  (  You  shall  or  will  n  have  had 

He  shall  or  will  n  have  had  They  shall  or  will  n  have  had 

NOTE. —  Will  is  not  used  in  the  first  person  of  this  tense  j  it  being  in- 
compatible with  the  nature  of  a  promise.  We  cannot  say,  •'  I  will  have 
had  possession  a  year,  on  the  first  of  October  next ;"  but  /  shall  have 
had,  is  a  common  expression. 

Imperative  Mode. 

Have  n  or  have  thou  n  Have  ye  n,  have  you  n 

Have  you  n  or  do  n  you  have  Do  n  you  have 

NOTE. — A  command,  request  or  exhortation  must,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  be  addressed  to  the  second  person ;  nor  can  these  phrases,  let  we 
have,  let  us  have,  be  considered,  in  strictness,  as  the  first  person  of  this 
mode ;  nor  let  him  have,  as  the  third. 

The  true  force  and  effect  of  the  verb,  in  this  mode,  depend  on  its  ap- 
plication to  characters,  and  the  manner  of  utterance.  Come,  go,  let  him 
go,  if  uttered  with  a  respectful  address,  or  in  a  civil  manner,  may  ex- 
press entreaty,  request  or  exhortation.  On  the  other  hand,  such  words 
uttered  with  a  tone  of  authority,  and  addressed  to  inferiors,  express 
command. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  63 


CONDITIONAL    OR    SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 

The  Conditional  or  Subjunctive  Mode  is  the  same  as  the 
Indicative  ;  with  some  preceding  word  expressing  condition, 
supposition  or  contingency.  These  words  are  if,  though,  or 
although,  unless,  except,  whether,  lest,  albeit. 

If  is  a  corruption  of  gif,  the  imperative  of  gifan,  the 
Saxon  orthography  of  give.  Though,  the  Saxon  theah, 
signifies  permit,  allow.  Although  is  a  compound  of  all  and 
though,  give  or  allow  all.  The  old  word  thof,  still  used  in 
some  parts  of  England,  is  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  tha- 
fan,  to  allow.  Unless  is  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  on- 
Icsan,  to  loose,  or  dissolve.  Except  is  the  imperative  of 
that  verb.  Lest  is  from  lesan,  to  loose  or  dissolve.  Albeit 
is  a  compound  of  all,  be  and  it,  let  it  be  so. 

These  words,  if,  though,  answer  in  signification  and  use, 
to  the  following  :  admit,  grant,  allow,  suppose,  as  signs 
of  a  condition  or  hypothesis :  "  If  you  shall  go,"  is  simply 
"  give,  you  shall  go  ;"  that  is,  give  that  condition  or  fact ; 
allow  or  suppose  it  to  be  so. 

It  has  been,  and  is  still  customary  for  authors  to  omit  the 
personal  terminations  of  the  second  and  third  persons  of  the 
verb  in  the  present  tense,  to  form  the  subjunctive  mode ;  if 
thou  go,  if  he  write. 

The  correct  construction  of  the  subjunctive  mode  is  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  that  of  the  indicative  ;  as  it  is  used  in 
popular  practice,  which  has  preserved  the  true  idiom  of  the 
language;  if  thou  hast,  if  he  has  or  hath;  to  denote  present 
uncertainty.  But  a  future  contingency  may  be  expressed 
by  the  omission  of  the  personal  terminations ;  if  he  go,  that 
is,  if  he  shall  go. 

Be. 

Be  is  a  verb  denoting  existence,  and  therefore  called  the 
substantive  verb.  It  is  very  irregular,  being  derived  from 
different  radicals,  and  having  undergone  many  dialectical 
changes. 

Infinitive  Mode,  Present  Tense. — To  be. 

Perfect  Tense.— To  have  been.  • 

Participle  of  the  Present  Tense. — Being. 

Of  the  Perfect.— Been. 
Compound. — Having  been. 


64  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

Indicative  Mode,  Present  Tense. 

I  am  n  We  are  n 

\  Thou  art  n  C  Ye  are  n 

[  You  are  n  £  You  are  n 

'  He  is  n 

[  She  is  n  They  are  n 
[  It  is  n 

The  foregoing  form  of  the  present  tense  is  now  generally 
used  by  good  writers.  But  the  following  form  is  the  most 
ancient,  and  is  still  very  general  in  popular  practice. 

I  be  n  We  be  n 

You  be  n  Ye  or  you  be  n 

He  is  n  They  be  n 

Thou  beest,  in  the  second  person,  is  not  in  use. 

Past  Tense. 

I  was  n  We  were  n 

C  Thou  wast  n  C  Ye  were  n 

£  You  was  or  were  n  (  You  were  n 

He  was  n  They  were  n 

Perfect  Tense. 

I  have  n  been  We  have  n  been 

C  Thou  hast  n  been  C  Ye  have  n  been 

£  You  have  n  been  (  You  have  n  been 

He  hath  or  has  n  been  They  have  n  been 

Prior-Past  Tense. 

I  had  n  been  We  had  n  been 

C  Thou  hadst  n  been  C  Ye  had  n  been 

\  You  had  n  been  {  You  had  n  been 

He  had  n  been  They  had  n  been 

Future  Tense. 

I  shall  or  will  n  be  We  shall  or  will  n  be* ' 

C  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  be  C  Ye  shall  or  will  n  be 

(  You  shall  or  will  n  be  £  You  shall  or  will  n  be 

He  shall  or  will  n  be  They  shall  or  will  n  be 

Prior-Future  Tense. 

I  shall  n  have  been  We  shall  n  have  been 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  have  been     C  Ye  shall  or  will  n  have  been 
You  shall  or  will  n  have  been       (  You  shall  or  will  n  have  been 
He  shall  or  will  n  have  been  They  shall  or  will  n  have  been 

Imperative  Mode. 

Command     £  ^e  n>  be  tbou  w;  ^°  n  thou  be'  or  do  n  be'  be  ^e  w' 
do  ?i  you  be,  or  do  you  n  be ;  or  do  n  be. 

Let  them  n  be '  let  him  n  be  ;  let.us  n  be '  let  them  n  be' 

Subjunctive  Mode. 

This  mode  is  formed  by  prefixing  any  sign  of  condition, 
hypothesis  or  contingency,  to  the  indicative  mode  in  its  va- 
rious tenses. 


OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  65 

Present  Tense.  .    Past  Tense. 


If  I  am  We  are 

C  Thou  art  C  Ye  are 

£  You  are  (  You  are 
He  is  They  are 


If  I  was  We  were 

C  Thou  wast  C  Ye  were 

(  You  was  or  were  (  You  were 
He  was  They  were 


The  foregoing  tenses  .express  uncertainty,  whether  a  fact 
exists  or  existed ;  or  they  admit  the  fact.  The  following 
form  is  used  for  the  like  purposes : 

Tflbe  We  be 

C  Thou  be  C  Ye  be 

I  You  be  I  You  be 
He  be  They  be 

But  this  is  more  properly  the  form  of  the  conditional  fu- 
ture ;  that  is,  the  verb  without  the  sign  of  the  future — if  he 
be,  for  if  he  shall  be. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  expressing  supposition  or 
hypothesis,  and  may  be  called  the 

Hypothetical  Tense. 

If  I  were  We  were 

C  Thou  wert  C  Ye  were 

I  You  was  or  were  £  You  were 
He  were  They  were 

"If  I  were,"  supposes  I  am  not;  "if  I  were  not,"  sup* 
poses  I  am.* 

The  other  tenses  are  the  same  as  in  the  indicative  mode. 


*  No  fault  is  more  common  than  the  misapplication  of  this  tense.  In 
the  -Saxon,  were  was  often  used  in  the  third  person  of  the  indicative 
mocle,  and  without  a  preceding  sign  of  condition  ;  as  in  these  examples — 
il  After  thisum  hafde  se  cyng  mycel  getheat,  and  swithe  deope  spaece 
with  his  witan  ymbe  this  land,  hu  hit  ware  gesett." — Sax.  Chron.  An. 
1085.  "  After  this  the  King  held  a  great  council,  and  made  important 
representations  respecting  this  land,  how  it  were  settled."  In  the  Ger-* 
man,  the  inflection  of  the  word,  in  the  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative, 
is — Ich  war,  du  warest,  er  war,  he  were.  The  orthdgraphy  of  the  word, 
in  the  imperfect  tense  of  the  subjunctive,  is  were,  and  our  early  English 
writers  seem  to  have  confounded  the  two  tenses.  The  regular  Saxon 
verb  in  the  past  tense  of  the  indicative,  was  thus  inflected — Ic  wses,  du 
waere,  he  wses.  Hence  our  greatest  writers,  Milton,  Dryden,  Pope  and 
others,  retained  that  form  of  the  word — Before  the  heavens  thou  wert ; 
remember  what  thou  wert — expressions  which  Lowth  condemns  as  not 
analogous  to  the  formation  of  words  in  different  modes.  I  would  con- 
demn this  use  of  the  verb  also,  but  for  a  different  reason  j  it  is  now 
obsolete. 

But  the  use  of  this  form  of  the  verb  is  retained  in  the  subjunctive 
mode,  which,  our  grammars  teach  us,  must  follow  the  signs  of  condi* 
6  * 


66  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


The  Conjugation  of  a  Regular  Verb. 

LOVE. 

Infinitive  Mode,  Present  Tense — To  love. 

Perfect  Tense — To  Htlbe  loved. 
Participle  of  the  Present  Tense — Loving. 
Of  the  Perfect— Loved. 
Compound — Having  loved. 

Indicative  Mode — Present  Tense ;  indefinite. 

I  love  n  We  love  n 

C  Thou  lovest  n  (Ye  love  n 

(  You  love  n  (  You  love  n 

He  loveth  or  loves  n  They  love  n 

With  the  auxiliary  do. 

I  do  n  love  We  do  n  love 

C  Thou  dost  7i  love  C  Ye  do  n  love 

(  You  do  n  love  \  You  do  n  love 

He  doth  or  does  n  love  They  do  n  love 

Definite. 

I  am  n  loving  We  are  n  loving 

C  Thou  art  n  loving  C  Ye  are  n  loving 

£  You  are  n  loving  (  You  are  n  loving 

He  is  n  loving  They  are  n  loving 


tion — ift  though,  unless,  whether — a  rule  which,  without  qualification, 
has  a  mischievous  effect.  On  carefully  examining  the  original  state  of 
the  language,  I  find  the  common  and  true  use  of  were  in  the  singular 
number,  is,  to  express  hypothesis  or  suj)position.  Thus,  Sax.  Chron. 
ad  annum  1017.  On  the  third  of  the  ides  of  December,  at  night,  the 
moon  appeared — "  swylce  he  call  blodig  wsere" — such,  or,  as,  if,  he  all 
bloody  were — and  the  heaven  was  red,  "  swylce  hit  bryne  wsere" — as  if 
it  were  on  fire.  This  use  of  were,  in  the  singular  number,  is  legitimate, 
and  is  still  retained  by  good  writers — but  its  use  to  express  a  mere  un- 
certainty respecting  a  past  event,  after  a  sign  of  condition,  is  obsolete  or 
not  legitimate.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  distinction — 
"  Whether  the  killing  were  malicious  or  not,  is  no  farther  a  subject  of 
inquiry,"  &c. — Judge  Parker,  trial  of  Self  ridge,  p.  161.  Here  were  is 
improperly  used.  So  also  where  the  fact  is  admitted:  "  Though  he 
were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience." — Heb.  5.  8,  where  Lowth  justly 
condemns  the  use  of  were — "  Unless  a  felony  were  attempted  or  intend- 
ed."— Self  ridge's  Trial,  p.  125.  It  ought  to  be  was. 

The  following  is  the  true  sense  of  were  in  the  singular  number — 
"  Were  it  necessary  for  you  to  take  your  books  with  you  ?" — Judge  Par- 
ker, Ibm.  159.  "  If  it  were  possible,  they  would  deceive  the  elect." — 
Mat.  24,  24.  This  is  the  only  legitimate  use  of  this  tense.  "  It  were 
easy."  Miller's  Letters,  p.  281. — It  would  be  easy. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  67 

Past  Tense,  indefinite. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I  loved  n  We  loved  n 

C  Thou  lovedst  n  (Ye  loved  n 

\  You  loved  n  £  You  loved  n 

He  loved  n  They  loved  n 

With  the  auxiliary  did. 

I  did  n  love  We  did  n  love 

C  Thou  didst  n  love  (  Ye  did  n  love 

£  You  did  n  love  (  You  did  n  love 

He  did  n  love  They  did  n  love 
Definite. 

I  was  n  loving  We  were  n  loving 

(  Thou  wast  n  loving  C  Ye  were  n  loving 

£  You  was  n  loving  (  You  were  n  loving 

He  was  n  loving  They  were  n  loving 

Perfect  Tense,  indefinite. 

I  have  n  loved  We  have  n  loved 

C  Thou  hast  n  loved  C  Ye  have  n  loved 

\  You  have  n  loved  (  You  have  n  loved 

He  has  or  hath  n  loved  They  have  n  loved 

Definite. 

1  have  n  been  loving  We  have  n  been  loving 

C  Thou  hast  n  been  loving  C  Ye  have  n  been  loving 

(  You  have  n  been  loving  (  You  have  n  been  loving 

He  has  or  hath  n  been  loving  They  have  n  been  loving 

Prior-Past,  indefinite. 

I  had  n  loved  We  had  n  loved 

C  Thou  hadst  n  loved  C  Ye  had  n  loved 

£  You  had  n  loved  (  You  had  n  loved 

He  had  ri  loved  They  had  w  loved 

Definite. 

I  had  n  been  loving  We  had  n  been  loving 

C  Thou  hadst  ?i  been  loving  C  Ye  had  n  been  loving 

(  You  had  n  been  loving  (  You  had  n  been  loving 

He  had  n  been  loving  They  had  n  been  loving 

Future  Tense,  indefinite. 

The  form  of  predicting. 

I  shall  7i  love  We  shall  n  love 

C  Thou  wilt  n  love  C  Ye  will  n  love 

(  You  will  n  love  \  You  will  ra  love 

He  will  n  love  They  will  n  love 

The  form  of  promising,  commanding  and  determining. 

I  will  n  love  We  will  n  love 

C  Thou  shalt  n  love  C  Ye  shall  n  love 

\  You  shall  n  love  (  You  shall  n  love 

He  shall  n  love  They  shall  »  love 


68 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


Definite. 


I  shall  or  will  n  be  lovin 


Plural. 
We  shall  or  will  n  be  loving 


i  snail  or  will  n  be  loving  We  shall  or  will  n  be  loving 

C  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  be  loving  C  Ye  shall  or  will  n  be  loving 

(  You  shall  or  will  n  be  loving  (  You  shall  or  will  n  be  loving 

He  shall  or  will  n  be  loving  They  shall  or  will  n  be  loving 

Prior-Future,  indefinite. 

I  shall  n  have  loved  We  shall  n  have  loved 

C  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  have  loved       C  Ye  shall  or  will  n  have  loved 
\  You  shall  or  will  n  have  loved          \  You  shall  or  will  n  have  loved 

He  shall  or  will  n  have  loved  They  shall  or  will  n  have  loved 

Definite. 

I  shall  n  have  been  loving 
f  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  have  been 

loving 
\  You  shall  or  will  n  have  been 

loving 
He   shall   or   will  n  have  been 

loving  loving 


We  shall  n  have  been  loving 
Ye  shall  or  will  n  have   been 

loving 
You  shall  or  will  n  have  been 

loving 
They  shall  or  will  n  have  been 


Let  me  n  love 
Love  n 
Do  n  love 
Do  thou  n  love 
Do  you  n  love 


Imperative  Mode. 


Let  us  n  love 

Love  n 

Do  n  love 

Do  ye  or  you  n  love 


Subjunctive  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
If,  though,  unless, 
whether,  suppose, 
admit,  &c. 

I  love  n  We  love  n 

C  Thou  lovest  n*  C  Ye  love  n 

(  You  love  n  \  You  love  n 

He  loveth  or  loves  n  They  love  n 

Some  authors  omit  the  personal  terminations  in  the  se- 
cond and  third  persons — if  thou  love,  if  he  love.  With  this 
single  variation,  which  I  deem  contrary  to  the  principles  of 
our  language,  the  subjunctive  mode  differs  not  in  the  least 
from  the  indicative,  and  to  form  it  the  learner  has  only  to 
prefix  a  sign  of  condition,  as,  if,  though,  unless,  &/c.  to  the 
indicative,  in  its  several  tenses :  With  this  exception,  how- 
ever, that  in  the  future  tense,  the  auxiliary  may  be  and  often 
is  suppressed.  Thus  instead  of 


If  I  shall  or  will  love 
Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love 
You  shall  or  will  love 
He  shall  or  will  love 


We  shall  or  will  love 
Ye  shall  or  will  love 
You  shall  or  will  love 
They  shall  or  will  love 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  69 

Authors  write, 

If,  <$/-c.  I  love  We  love 

Thou  love  Ye  love 

You  love  You  love 

He  love  They  love 

It  is  further  to  be  remarked,  that  should  is  very  often  used 
to  form  the  conditional  future — if  1  should,  thou  shouldst, 
&/c.  This  tense  is  inflected  like  the  past  tense,  but  is  pro- 
bably more  used  for  the  conditional  future  than  shall  and 
will 

The  other  auxiliaries  also  in  the  past  time  are  used  in  this 
conditional  mode  in  a  very  indefinite  sense. 

I  shall  therefore  offer  a  new  tense  in  this  mode  composed 
of  any  principal  verb,  with  might,  could,  should,  and  would, 
expressing,  like  the  Greek  aorists,  time  indefinite  present, 
past  w  future,  especially  the  future. 

Subjunctive  Mode,  indefinite  Tense. 
If,  though,  unless, 
whether,  lest,  ex- 
cept, suppose,  &c. 

Singular. 

I  might,  could,  should,  or  would  n  love 
Thou  mightest,  couldst,  shouldst  or  wouldst  n  love 
You  might,  could,  should,  would  n  love 
He  might,  could,  should,  would  n  love 

Plural. 

We  might,  could,  should,  would  n  love 
Ye  or  you  might,  could,  should,  would  n  love 
They  might,  could,  should,  would  n  love 

In  the  subjunctive  mode,  there  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  tenses 
which  should  be  noticed.  When  I  say,  if  it  rains,  it  is  un- 
derstood that  I  am  uncertain  of  the  fact,  at  the  time  of 
speaking.  But  when  I  say,  "  If  it  rained,  we  should  be  ob- 
liged to  seek  shelter,"  it  is  not  understood  that  I  am  uncer- 
tain of  the  fact ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  understood  that  I  am 
certain,  it  does  not  rain  at  the  time  of  speaking.  Or  if  I 
say,  "  if  it  did  not  rain,  I  would  take  a  walk,"  I  convey  the 
idea  that  it  does  rain  at  the  moment  of  speaking.  This  form 
of  our  tenses  in  the  subjunctive  mode  has  never  been  the 
subject  of  much  notice,  nor  ever  received  its  due  explana- 
tion and  arrangement.  For  this  hypothetical  verb  is  actu- 
ally a  present  tense,  or  at  least  indefinite, — it  certainly 
does  not  belong  to  past  time.  It  is  further  to  be  remarked, 
that  a  negative  sentence  always  implies  an  affirmative — "  if 


70  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

it  did  not  rain/'  implies  that  it  does  rain.  On  the  contrary, 
an  affirmative  sentence  implies  a  negative — "  if  it  did  rain," 
implies  that  it  does  not. 

In  the  past  time,  a  similar  distinction  exists ;  for  "  if  it 
rained  yesterday,"  denotes  uncertainty  in  the  speaker's  mind 
— but  "  if  it  had  not  rained  yesterday,"  implies  a  certainty, 
that  it  did  rain. 

Passive  form  of  the  Verb. — Indicative  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  am  n  loved  We  are  n  loved 

C  Thou  art  n  loved  C  Ye  are  n  loved 

£  You  are  n  loved  £  You  are  n  loved 

He  is  n  loved  They  are  n  loved 

Past  Tense. 

I  was  n  loved  We  were  n  loved 

C  Thou  wast  n  loved  C  Ye  were  n  loved 

(  You  was  or  were  n  loved  (  You  were  n  loved 

He  was  n  loved  They  were  n  loved 

Perfect  Tense. 

I  have  n  been  loved  We  have  n  been  loved 

C  Thou  hast  n  been  loved  C  Ye  have  n  been  loved 

(  You  have  n  been  loved  £  You  have  n  been  loved 

He  has  or  hath  n  been  loved  They  have  n  been  loved 

Prior-Past  Tense. 

I  had  n  been  loved  We  had  n  been  loved 

C  Thou  hadst  n  been  loved  C  Ye  had  n  been  loved 

\  You  had  n  been  loved  (  You  had  n  been  loved 

He  had  n  been  loved  They  had  n  been  loved 

Future  Tense. 

I  shall  or  will  n  be  loved  We  shall  or  will  n  be  loved 

C  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  be  loved  C  Ye  shall  or  will  n  be  loved 

|  You  shall  or  will  n  be  loved  \  You  shall  or  will  n  be  loved 

He  shall  or  will  n  be  loved  They  shall  or  will  n  be  loved 

Prior-Future  Tense. 

I  shall  n  have  been  loved  We  shall  n  have  been  loved 

f  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  n  have  been  f  Ye  shall  or  will  n  have  been 

loved  loved 

\  You   shall   or  will   n  have   been  )  You  shall  or  will  n  have  been 

loved  loved 

He    shall   or   will   n  have    been     They  shall  or  will  n  have  been 
loved  loved 

Imperative  Mode. 

Let  me  n  be  loved  Let  us  n  be  loved 

Be  n  loved  Be  n  loved 

Be  thou  or  you  n  loved  Be  ye  or  you  n  loved 

Do  you  n  be  loved*  Do  you  n  be  loved 

*  The  not  is  usually  placed  after  do}  and  contracted  into  don't. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


71 


Singular. 
If,  4/-C.  I  am  n  loved 

Thou  art  n  loved 
You  are  n  loved 
He  is  n  loved 

If,  4/-C.  I  be  n  loved 

C  Thou  be  n  loved 

£  You  be  n  loved 

He  be  n  loved 


Subjunctive  Mode. 
Present  Tense. 


Or  thus  : 


If,  4"C.  I  was  n  loved 

C  Thou  wast  n  loved 
(  You  was  or  were  n  loved 
He  was  n  loved 


Past  Tense. 


If,  4/*c.  I  were  n  loved 

C  Thou  wert  n  loved 

(  You  were  n  loved 

He  were  n  loved 


Or  thus : 


Perfect  Tense. 


If,  4/*c.  1  have  n  been  loved 

C  Thou  hast  n  been  loved 
(  You  have  n  been  loved 
He  has  or  hath  n  been  loved 

Prior-Past  Tense. 
If,  fyc.  I  had  n  been  loved 

C  Thou  hadst  n  been  loved 
£  You  had  n  been  loved 
He  had  n  been  loved 


Plural. 

We  are  ?i  loved 
C  Ye  are  n  loved 
(  You  are  n  loved 

They  are  n  loved 

We  be  n  loved 
C  Ye  be  n  loved 
(  You  be  n  loved 

They  be  w  loved 

We  were  n  loved 
C  Ye  were  n  loved 
\  You  were  TI  loved 

They  were  n  loved 

We  were  n  loved 
C  Ye  were  n  loved 
(  You  were  n  loved 

They  were  n  loved 

We  have  ?i  been  loved 
C  Ye  have  n  been  loved 
(  You  have  n  been  loved 
-  They  have  n  been  loved 

We  had  n  been  loved 
C  Ye  had  w  been  loved 
£  You  had  ra  been  loved 

They  had  n  been  loved 


loved 
Ye  shall,  will  or  should  n  be 


i  oe       x  le  snail,  will  c 

)       loved 
be      \  You  shall,  will  < 
'       loved 


Future  Tense. 

If,  4/-r.  I  shall,  will  or  should  n  be  We  shall,  will  or  should  n  be 

loved 

/•  Thou  shalt,  wilt  or  shouldst  n  be 
j       loved 

\  You  shall,  will  or  should   n  be  ^  You  shall,  will  or  should  n  be 
\      loved 

He  shall,  will  or  should  n   be  They  shall,  will  or  should  n  be 

loved  loved 

Prior-Future  Tense. 

If,  fyc.  I   shall   or   should  n  have  We  shall  or  should  n  have  been 

been  loved  loved 

{Thou  shalt  or  shouldst  n  have  ^  Ye  shall  or  should  n  have  been 

been  loved  j       loved 

You  shall  or  should  n  have  been  \  You  shall  or  should  n  have  been 

loved  (      loved 

He  shall  or  should  n  have  been  They  shall  or  should  n  have  been 

loved  loved 


72  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

The  future  is  often  elliptical,  the  auxiliary  being  omit- 
ted. Thus,  instead  of  if  I  shall  be  loved,  &,c.  are  used  the 
following  forms : 

If,  fyc.  I  be  n  loved  We  be  n  loved 

C  Thou  be  n  loved  C  Ye  be  n  loved 

(  You  be  n  loved  (  You  be  n  loved 
He  be  n  loved  They  be  n  loved 

An  exhibition  of  the  verb  in  the  interrogative  form,  with 
the  sign  of  the  negative. 

Indicative  Mode. 
Present  Tense,  indefinite. 

Love  In?  Love  we  n  ? 

C  Lovest  thou  n  ?  C  Love  ye  n  ? 

(  Love  you  n  ?  (  Love  you  n  ? 

Loveth  or  loves  he  n?  Love  they  n  ? 

The  foregoing  form  is  but  little  used.  The  following  is 
the  usual  mode  of  asking  questions. 

Do  I  n  love  ?  Do  we  n  love  ? 

C  Dost  thou  n  love  f  C  Do  ye  n  love  ? 

(  Do  you  n  love  ?  (  Do  you  n  love  ? 

Does  or  doth  he  n  love  ?  Do  they  n  love  ? 

Definite. 

Am  I  n  loving  ?  Are  we  n  loving  ? 

C  Art  thou  n  loving  ?  C  Are  ye  n  loving  ? 

(  Are  you  n  loving  ?  (  Are  you  n  loving  ? 

Is  he  n  loving  ?  Are  they  n  loving  ? 

Past  Tense,  indefinite. 

Did  I  n  love  ?  Did  we  n  love  ? 

C  Didst  thou  n  love  ?  C  Did  ye  n  love  ? 

{  Did  you  n  love  ?  (  Did  you  n  love  ? 

Did  he  n  love  ?  Did  they  n  love  ? 

The  other  form  of  this  tense,  loved  he  1  is  seldom  used. 

Definite. 

Was  I  n  loving?  Were  we  n  loving  ? 

C  Wast  thou  n  loving  ?  C  Were  ye  n  loving  ? 

\  Was  or  were  you  n  loving  ?  (  Were  you  n  loving  ? 

Was  he  n  loving  ?  Were  they  n  loving  ? 

Perfect  Tense,  indefinite 

Have  I  n  loved  ?  Have  we  n  loved  ? 

C  Hast  thou  n  loved  ?  C  Have  ye  n  loved  ? 

(  Have  you  n  loved  ?  (  Have  you  n  loved  ? 

Has  or  hath  he  n  loved  ?  Have  they  n  loved  ? 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  73 

Definite. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Have  I  n  been  loving  ?  Have  we  n  been  loving  ? 

C  Hast  thou  n  been  loving  ?  C  Have  ye  n  been  loving  ? 

£  Have  you  n  been  loving  ?  £  Have  you  TI  been  loving? 

Has  or  hath  he  n  been  loving  ?  Have  they  n  been  loving  ? 

Prior-Past,  indefinite. 

Had  I  n  loved  ?  Had  .we  TI  loved  ? 

C  Hadst  thou  n  loved  ?  .  C  Had  ye  n  loved  ? 

\  Had  you  TI  loved  ?  £  Had  you  n  loved  ? 

Had  he  71  loved  ?  Had  they  TI  loved  ? 

Definite. 

Had  I  n  been  loving  ?  Had  we  n  been  loving  ? 

C  Hadst  thou  7i  been  loving  ?  C  Had  ye  n  been  loving  ? 

(  Had  you  n  been  loving  ?  \  Had  you  n  been  loving  ? 

Had  he  n  been  loving  ?  Had  they  n  been  loving  ? 

Future  Tense,  indefinite. 

Shall  I  n  love  ?  Shall  we  n  love  ? 

C  Shalt  or  wilt  thou  n  love  ?  C  Shall  or  will  ye  n  love  ? 

(  Shall  or  will  you  n  love  ?  £  Shall  or  will,  you  n  love  ? 

Shall  or  will  he  n  love  ?  Shall  'or  will  they  n  love  ? 

Definite. 

Shall  In  be  loving  ?  Shall  we  n  be  loving  ? 

C  Shalt  or  wilt  thou  n  be  loving  ?      C  Shall  or  will  ye  n  be  loving? 
(  Shall  or  will  you  n  be  loving  ?        \  Shall  or  will  you  n  be  loving  ? 

Shall  or  will  he  n  be  loving  ?  Shall  or  will  they  n  be  loving ? 

Prior- Future,  indefinite. 

Shall  I  n  have  loved  ?  Shall  we  n  have  loved  ? 

C  Shalt  or  wilt  thou  n  have  loved  ?     C  Shall  or  will  ye  n  have  loved  ? 
(  Shall  or  will  you  n  have  loved  ?      (  Shall  or  will  you  n  have  loved  ? 

Shall  or  will  he  n  have  loved  ?  Shall  or  will  they  n  have  loved  ? 

The  definite  form  of  this  tense,  is  little  used. 

Will,  in  this  tense,  is  not  elegantly  used  in  the  first  person. 

The  interrogative  form  is  not  used  in  the  imperative 
mode — a  command  and  a  question  being  incompatible. 

Let  the  learner  be  instructed  that  in  interrogative  sen- 
tences, the  nominative  follows  the  verb  when  alone,  or  the  first 
auxiliary  when  one  or  more  are  used ;  and  the  sign  of  ne- 
gation not,  (and  generally  never,)  immediately  follows  the 
nominative. 

The  following  combinations,  with  can,, may,  could,  and  might, 
are,  by  some  writers,  considered  as  forming  a  mode,  called 
Potential.  They  may  however  be  resolved,  thus :  can  is  a 
verb  regularly  followed  by  have  in  the  Infinitive  Mode^  and  had, 
the  participle ;  these  together  constituting  a  tense,  in  the 
indicative  or  Subjunctive  Mode.  But  if  any  persons  think  it 
7 


74  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

more  correct  or  convenient,  to  call  these  combinations  the 
Potential  Mode,  let  them  do  so. 

Present  Tense. 

1  may  or  can  n  have  We  may  or  can  n  have 

C  Thou  mayest  or  canst  n  have          C  Ye  may  or  can  n  have 
(  You  may  or  can  n  have  £  You  may  or  can  n  have 

He  may  or  can  n  have  They  may  or  can  n  have 

Perfect  Tense. 

I  may  n  have  had  We  may  n  have  had 

C  Thou  mayest  n  have  had  C  Ye  may  n  have  had 

£  You  may  n  have  had  (  You  may  n  have  had 

He  may  n  have  had  They  may  n  have  had 

In  like  manner  with  can. 

Prior-Past  Tense. 

I  might  n  have  had  We  might  n  have  had 

C  Thou  mightest  n  have  had  C  Ye  might  n  have  had 

£  You  might  n  have  had  £  You  might  n  have  had 

•     He  might  n  have  had  They  might  n  have  had 

In  like  manner  with  could,  icould,  and  should.     **r 
IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

All  verbs  whose  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  do  not 
end  in  ed  are  deemed  irregular.  The  number  of  these  is 
about  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven.  They  are  of  three 
kinds. 

1.  Those   whose  past  tense  and  participle  of  the  perfect 
are  the  same   as  the  present ;  as,  beat,  burst,  cast,  cost,  cut, 
hit,  hurt,  let,  put,  read,  rid,  set,  shed,  shred,  shut,  slit,  split, 
spread,  thrust,  sweat,  wet.      Wet  has  sometimes  wetted;  heat 
sometimes  het ;  but  -the  practice  is  not  respectable. 

2.  Verbs  whose- past  time  and  participle  are  alike,  but  dif- 
ferent from  the  present ;   as,  meet ,  met ;  sell,  sold. 

3.  Verbs  whose  present  and- past  tenses  and  participle  are 
all  different;  as,  know,  knew,  known. 

A  few  verbs  ending  with  ch,  ck,  x,  p,  II,  ess,  though  regu 
lar,  suffer  a  contraction  of  ed  into  t ,  as,  snatcht  for  snatched, 
checkt  for  checked,  snapt  for  snapped,  mixt  for  mixed,  dwelt 
for  dwelled,  past  for  passed.  Others  have  a  digraph  short- 
ened ;  as,  dream,  dreamt ;  feel,  felt ;  mean,  meant ;  sleep, 
slept ;  deal,  dealt.  In  a  few,  v  is  changed  into/*;  as,  bereave, 
bereft ;  leave,  left. 

As  some  of  the  past  tenses  and  participles  are  obsolete  or 
obsolescent,  it  is  deemed  proper  to  set  these  in  separate  col- 
umns, in  italics,  for  the  information  of  the  student. 


OP    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


75 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Past  Tense 

Participle 

Infinitive. 

Past  Tense. 

Participle.             obsolete. 

obsolete. 

Abide 

abode 

abode 

Am 

was 

been 

Arise,  rise 

arose,  rose 

arisen,  risen 

Awake 

awoke,  awaked 

awaked 

Bear 

bore 

borne                  bare 

Beat 

beat 

beat,  beaten 

Begin 
Bend. 

begun,  began 
bended,  bent 

begun 
bended,  bent 

Bereave 

bereaved,  bereft 

bereaved,  bereft 

Beseech 
Bid 

besought 
bid,  bade 

besought 
bid,  bidden 

Bind 

bound 

bound 

bounden 

Bite 

bit 

bit,  bitten 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Blow 

blew 

blown 

Break 

broke 

broke,  broken     brake 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Bring 
Build 

brought 
builded,  built 

brought 
built 

Burst 

burst 

burst 

Buy 

bought 

bought 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Catch 

catched,  caught 

catched,  caught 

Chide 

chid 

chid 

chidden 

Chuse,  choose 

chose 

chose,  chosen 

Cleave,  to  stick 

cleaved 

cleaved               clave 

Cleave,  to  split 

cleft 

cleft,  clove,  cloven 

Cling 
Clothe 

clung 
clothed 

clung 
clothed,  clad 

, 

Come 

came,  come. 

come  

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Crow 

crowed 

crowed               crew 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Dare 

durst,  dared* 

dared 

Deal 

dealt 

dealt 

Dig 

dug,  digged 

dug,  digged 

Do 

did 

done 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Drive 

drove 

driven,  drove     drave 

Drink 

drank 

drank 

drunken. 

Dwell 

dwelt,  dwelled 

dwelt,  dwelled 

[drunk 

Eat 

ate 

eat,  eaten 

Engrave 
Fall 

engraved 
fell 

engraven,  engraved 
fallen 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

*  When  transitive,  this  verb  is  always  regular;  as,  "  he  dared  him." 


76 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


Past  Tense 

Participle 

Infinitive. 

Past  Tense. 

Participle.                      obsolete. 

obsolete, 

Find 

found 

found 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forget       * 
Forsake 

forgot 
forsook 

forgot,  forgotten    forgat 
forsaken 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen,  froze 

Get 
Gild 

got 
gilded,  gilt 

got,  gotten               gat 
gilded,  gilt 

Gird 

girded,  girt 

girded,  girt 

Give 

gave 

given 

Go 

went 

gone 

Grave 
Grind 

graved 
ground 

graved,  graven 
ground 

Grow 
Have 

grew 
had 

grown 
had 

Hanff 
Hear 

hanged,  hung 
heard 

•  hanged,  hung 
heard 

Hew 

hewed 

hewed,  hewn 

Hide 

hid 

hid,  hidden 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hold 

held 

held 

holden 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Keep 
Knit 

kept 
knit 

kept 
knit 

Know 

knew 

known 

Lade 

laded 

laden 

Lay 

laid 

laid 

» 

Lead 

led 

led 

Leave 

left 

left 

JLend 

lent 

lent 

Let 

let 

let 

Lie  (down) 

lay 

.  Iain 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Make 

made 

made 

Meet 

met 

met 

Mow 

mowed 

mowed,  mown 

Pay 

paid 

paid 

Put 

put 

put 

Read 

read 

read 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Ride 

rode 

rid 

ridden 

Ring 

rung,  rang 

rung 

Rise 

rose 

risen 

Rive 

rived 

rived,  riven 

Run 

ran,  run 

run 

Saw 

sawed 

sawed,  sawn 

Say 

said 

said 

See 

saw 

seen 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


77 


Past  Tense           Participle. 

Infinitive 

Past  Tense. 

Participle. 

obsolete.               obsolete. 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

i 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Set 

set 

set 

Shake 

shook 

shaken,  shook 

Shape 
Shave 

shaped 
shaved 

shaped 
shaved 

shapen 
shaven 

Shear 

sheared 

sheared,  shorn 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone,  shined       shone,  shined 

Shew 

shewn 

shewn 

Show 

showed 

shown,  showed 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

JL 

Shrink 

shrunk 

shrunk 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 
Sink 

sung 
sunk 

sung 
sunk 

sang 
sank 

Sit 

sat 

sat 

sitten 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Sleep 
Slide 

slept 
slid 

slept 
slid 

slidden 

Sling 

.    slung 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit,  slitted 

slit,  slitted 

Smite 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

Sow 

sowed 

sowed,  sown 

Speak 

spoke 

spoke,  spoken 

spake 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spend 

spent 

-~  spent 

Spill 

spilled,  spilt 

™  spilled,  spilt 

Spin 

spun 

spun 

Spit 

spit 

spit 

spat              spitten 

Spread 

spread 

spread 

Spring 
Stand 

sprung 
stood 

.  sprung 
stood 

sprang 

Steal 

stole 

stole,  stolen 

Sting 
Stink 

stung 
stunk 

stung 
stunk 

stank 

Stride 

strid,  strode 

strid 

stridden 

Strike 

struck 

struck 

stricken 

String 

strung 

strung 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Strow 

strowed 

strowed  strown 

Strew 

strewed 

strewed 

Swear 

swore 

sworn 

sware 

Sweat 

sweat 

sweat 

Swell 

swelled 

swelled 

swollen 

Swim 

swum,  swam 

swum 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Take 

took 

taken 

7* 

78  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

Past  Tense  Participle 

Infinitive.  Past  Tense.  Participle.  obsolete.  obsolete 

sach  taught  taught 

'ear  tore  torn 

Tell  told  told 

Think  thought  thought 

Thrive  thrived,  throve  thrived  thriven 

Throw  threw  thrown 

Thrust  thrust        •  thrust 

Tread  trod  trod,  trodden 

Wax  waxed  •  waxed  waxen 

Wear  wore  worn 

Weave  wove  woven,  wove 

Weep  wept  wept 

Win  *       won  won 

Wind  wound  wound 

Work  worked,  wrought  worked,  wrought 

Wring  wrung,  wringed  wrung,  wringed 

Write  Wrote  writ,  written 

NOTE  1. — The  old  forms  of  the  past  tense,  sang,  spake,  sprang,  for- 
gat,  &c.  are  here  placed  among  the  obsolete  words.  They  are  entirely 
obsolete,  in  ordinary  practice,  whether  popular  or  polite  ;  and  it  seems 
advisable  not  to  attempt  to  revive  them.  In  addition  to  this  reason  for 
omitting  them,  there  is  one  which  is  not  generally  understood.  The 
sound  of  a  in  these  and  all  other  like  cases,  was  originally  the  broad  a 
or  aw;  which  sound,  in  the  Gothic  and  Saxon,  as  in  the  modern  Scotch, 
corresponded  nearly  with  o  in  sp.oke,  swore.  Spoke  is  therefore  nearer 
to  the  original  than  spake,  as  we  now  pronounce  the  vowel  a  with  its 
first  or  long  sound,  as  in  sake. 

NOTE  2. — In  the  use  of  the  past  tense  and  participle  of  some  of  these 
verbs,  there  is  a  diversity  of  practice ;  some  authors  retaining  those 
which  others  have  rejected  as  obsoletejJjpMany  words  which  were  in 
use  in  the  days  of  Shakspeare  and  Lord  Bacon,  are  now  wholly  laid  aside  ; 
others  are  used  only  in  books,  while  others  are  obsolescent,  being  occa- 
sionally used ;  and  a  few  of  the  old  participles,  having  lost  the  verbal 
character,  are  used  only  as  attributes.  Of  the  last  mentioned  species, 
are  fraught,  drunken,  molten,  beholden,  shorn,  bounden,  cloven.  Holpcn 
is  entirely  obsolete.  Holden,  swollen,  gotten,  are  nearly  obsolete  in  com- 
mon parlance.  Wrought  is  evidently  obsolescent. 

Bishop  Lowth  has  attempted  to  revive  the  use  of  many  of  the  obsoles- 
cent past  tenses  and  participles,  for  which  he  has,  and  I  think  deserved- 
ly, incurred  the  severe  animadversions  of  eminent  critics.  "  Is  it  not 
surprising  (says  Campbell  on  Rhetoric,  b.  ii.  ch.  2.)  that  one  of  Lowth's 
penetration  should  think  a  single  person  entitled  to  revive  a  form  of  in- 
flection in  a  particular  word,  which  had  been  rejected  by  all  good  writ- 
ers of  every  denomination,  for  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ?"— - 
This  writer  declares  what  Lowth  has  advanced  on  the  use  of  the  past 
tense  and  participle,  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  very  first  principles  of 
grammar.  He  observes  justly  that  authority  is  every  thing  in  language, 
and  that  this  authority  consists  in  reputable,  national,  present  usage. 

Independent  of  authority,  however,  there  are  substantial  reasons  in 
the  language  itself  for  laying  aside  the  participles  ending  with  en,  and 
for  removing  the  differences  between  the  past  time  and  participle.  In 
opposition  to  the  opinion  of  Lowth,  who  regrets  that  our  language  has  so 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  79 

few  inflections,  and  maintains  that  we  should  preserve  all  we  have,  I 
think  it  capable  of  demonstration  that  the  differences  between  the  past 
time  and  participle  of  the  past  tense  of  our  irregular  verbs,  is  one  of  the 
greatest  inconveniences  in  the  language.  If  we  used  personal  termina- 
tions to  form  our  modes  and  tenses,  like  the  Greeks,  it  would  be  desira- 
ble that  they  should  be  carefully  retained.  But  as  we  have  no  other 
than  about  half  a  dozen  different  terminations,  and  are  therefore  obliged 
to  form  our  modes  and  tenses  by  means  of  auxiliaries,  the  combination  of 
these  forms  a  part  of  the  business  of  learning  the  language,  which  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  and  perplexing  to  foreigners.  Even  the  natives  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  do  not  always  surmount  the  difficulty.  This  difficulty 
is  very  much  augmented  by  the  difference  between  the  past  tense  and 
the 'participle.  To  remove  this  difference,  in  words  in  which  popular 
usage  has  given  a  lead,  is  to  obviate,  in  a  degree,  this  inconvenience. 
This  is  recommended  by  another  circumstance — it  will  so  far  reduce  our 
irregular  verbs  to  an  analogy  with  the  regular,  whose  past  tense  and  par- 
ticiple of  the  perfect  are  alike. 

In  a  number  of  woftis,  the  dropping  of  n  in  the  participle  will  make 
a  convenient  distinction  between  the  participle  and  the  adjective  ;  for  in 
the  latter,  we  always  retain  the  en — we  always  say  a  written  treatise,  a 
spoken  language,  a  hidden  mystery — though  the  best  authors  write,  a 
"  mystery  hid  from  ages  ;"  "  the  language  spoke  in  Bengal." 

Defective  Verbs. 

Verbs  which  want  the  past  time  or  participle,  are  deemed 
defective.  Of  these  we  have  very  few.  The  auxiliaries 
may,  can,  will,  shall,  must,  having  no  participle,  belong  to 
this  class.  Ought  is  used  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  on- 
ly, with  the  regular  inflection  of  the  second  person  only — / 
ought,  thou  ought est,  he  ought,  we,  you,  they  ought.  Quoth 
is  wholly  obsolete,  except  in  poetry  and  burlesque.  It  has 
no  inflection,  and  is  used  chiefly  in  the  third  person,  with 
the  nominative  following  it,  quoth  he, 

Wit,  to  know,  is  obsolete,  except  in  the  infinitive,  to  in- 
troduce an  explanation  or  enumeration  of  particulars;  as, 
"  There  are  s$ven  persons,  to  wit,  four  men  and  three  wo- 
men." Wot  arid  wist  are  entirely  obsolete.  , 

Adverbs  or  Modifiers. 

Adverbs  are  a  secondary  part  of  speech.  Their  uses  are 
to  enlarge,  restrain,  limit,  define,  and  in  short,  to  modify  the 
sense  of  other  words. 

Adverbs  may  be  classed  according  to  their  several  uses. 

1.  Those  which  qualify  the  actions  expressed  by  verbs  and 
participles ;  as,  "  a  good  man  lives  piously ;"  "  a  room  is 
elegantly  furnished."  Here  piously  denotes  the  manner  of 
living — elegantly  denotes  the  manner  of  being  furnished. 
The  words  of  this  kind,  which  are  very  numerous,  are  really 
compound  adjectives,  formed  by  annexing  the  attribute  like 


80  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

to  any  other  attribute — "pious-tike,  elegant-like.  The  phrases 
mentioned,  when  expressed  according  to  the  primitive 
idiom,  stand  thus :  "  he  lives  pious-like ;"  "a  room  elegant- 
like  furnished."  So  that  the  most  numerous  class  of  modi- 
fiers of  verbs  are  really  attributes  or  adjectives;  But  being 
used  as  the  qualifiers  of  verbs  and  other  attributes,  and  not 
to  express  the  qualities  of  names,  they  may  well  take  a  dif- 
ferent appellation. 

In  this  class  may  be  ranked  a  number  of  other  words ;  as, 
when,  soon,  then,  ivhere,  whence,  hence,  and  many  others, 
whose  use  is  to  modify  verbs. 

2.  Another  class  of  modifiers  are  words  usually  called  prep- 
ositions, used  with  verbs  to  vary  their  signification ;  for 
which  purpose  they  generally  follow  them  in  construction ; 
as,  to  fall  on,  give  out,  bear  with,  cast  up;  or  they  are  pre- 
fixed and  become  a  part  of  the  word ;  as,  overcome,  under- 
lay. In  these  uses,  these  words  modify,  or  change  the  sense 
of  the  verb ;  and  when  prefixed,  are  united  with  the  verb  in 
orthography. 

A  few  modifiers  admit  the  termination  of  comparison ;  as, 
soon,  sooner,  soonest;  often,  oftener,  oftenest.  Most  of 
those  which  end  in  ly,  may  be  compared  by  more  and  most, 
less,  and  least;  as,  more  justly,  more  excellently;  less  hon- 
estly, least  criminally. 

NOTE. — The  numerous  distinctions  of  adverbs  into  those  of  time,  place 
and  quantity,  casual,  illative,  adversative,  &c.  seem  to  be  more  perplex- 
ing than  useful.  We  might  as  well  make  the  definition  of  every  word 
in  our  dictionaries  the  foundation  of  a  class,  as  to  recognize  the  divisions 
of  this  species  of  words,  with  which  the  ingenuity  of  authors  has  filled 
our  grammars. 

Prepositions. 

Prepositions,  so  called  from  their  being  put  before  other 
,  words,  serve  to  connect  words  and  show  the  relation  be- 
tween them,  or  to  show  the  condition  of  things.  Thus,  a 
man  of  benevolence,  denotes  a  man  who  possesses  benevo- 
lence. Christ  was  crucified  between  two  thieves.  Receive 
the  book  from  John  and  give  it  to  Thomas. 

The  prepositions  most  common  are,  to,  for,  by,  of,  in, 
into,  on,  upon,  among,  between,  betwixt,  up,  over,  under,  be- 
neath, against,  from,  out,  with,  through,  at,  towards,  before, 
behind,  after,  without,  across. 

We  have  a  number  of  particles,  which  serve  to  vary  or 
modify  the  words  to  which  they  are  prefixed,  and  which  are 
sometimes  called  inseparable  prepositions,  because  they  are 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.          |    81 

never  used  but  as  parts  of  other  words — such  are  a,  be,  con, 
mis,  pre,  re,  sub,  in  abide,  become,  conjoin,  mistake,  prefix, 
return,  subjoin,  &/c.  These  may  be  called  prefixes. 

Connectives  or  Conjunctions. 

Connectives  are  words  which  unite  words  and  sentences 
in  construction,  joining  two  or  more  simple  sentences  into 
one  compound  one,  and  continuing  the  sentence  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  writer  or  speaker.  They  also  begin  sentences 
after  a  full  period,  manifesting  some  relation  between  sen- 
tences in  the  general  tenor  of  discourse. 

The  connectives  of  most  general  use,  are,  and,  or,  either, 
nor,  neither,  but,  than. 

And  is  supposed  to  denote  an  addition ;  as,  "  The  book  is 
worth  four  shillings  and  sixpence."  That  is,  it  is  worth  four 
shillings,  add  sixpence,  or  with  sixpence  added.  "  John  re- 
sides at  New- York,  and  Thomas  at  Boston."  That  is,  John 
resides  at  New- York,  add  [add  this  which  follows]  Thomas 
resides  at  Boston.  From  the  great  use  of  this  connective 
in  joining  words  of  whioh  the  same  thing  is  affirmed  or  pre- 
dicated, it  may  be  justly  called  the  copulative  by  way  of 
eminence. 

The  distinguishing  use  of  the  connective  is  to  save  the 
repetition  of  words  ;  for  this  sentence,  "  John,  Thomas  and 
Peter  reside  at  York,"  contains  three  simple  sentences; 
"  John  resides  at  York"—"  Thomas  resides  at  York"— "  Pe- 
ter resides  at  York  ;"  which  are  all  combined  into  one,  with 
a  singlp  verb  and  predicate,  by  means  of  the  copulative. 

Either  and  or  have  been  already  explained  under  the  head 
of  substitutes ;  for  in  strictness  they  are  the  representatives 
of  sentences  or  words ;  but  as  or  has  totally  lost  that  char- 
acter, both  these  words  will  be  here  considered  as  connect- 
ives. Their  use  is  to  express  an  alternative,  and  I  shall  call 
them  alternatives.  Thus,  "  Either  John  or  Henry  will  be 
at  the  Exchange,"  is  an  alternative  sentence ;  the  verb  or 
predicate  belonging  to  one  or  the  other,  but  not  to  both  ; 
and  whatever  may  be  the  number  of  names  or  propositions 
thus  joined  by  or,  the  verb  and  predicate  belong  to  one  only. 

One  very  common  use  of  or,  is  to  join  to  a  word  or  sen- 
tence, something  added  by  way  of  explanation  or  definition. 
Thus,  "  No  disease  of  the  mind  can  more  fatally  disable  it 
from  benevolence  than  ill-humor  or  peevishness."  Ram~ 
bier,  No.  74.  Here  peevishness  is  not  intended  as  a  distinct 


82  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

thing  from  ill-humor,  but  as  another  term  for  the  same  idea. 
In  this  case,  or  expresses  only  an  alternative  of  words,  and 
not  of  signification. 

As  either  and  or  are  affirmative  of  one  or  other  of  the  par- 
ticulars named,  so  neither  and  nor  are  negative  of  all  the 
particulars.  Thus,  "  For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death, 
nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things 
present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any 
other  creature  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of 
God." — Rom.  8.  38.  Here  neither  is  in  fact  a  substitute 
for  each  of  the  following  particulars — all  of  which  it  denies 
to  be  able  to  effect  a  certain  purpose — not  either  of  these 
which  follow  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God.  It  is 
laid  down  as  a  rule  in  our  grammars,  that  nor  must  always 
answer  to  neither ;  but  this  is  a  great  mistake,  for  the  nega- 
tion of  neither,  not  either,  extends  to  every  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing alternatives.  But  nor  is  more  generally  used,  and 
in  many  cases,  as  in  the  passage  just  recited,  is  far  the  most 
emphatical. 

But  is  used  for  two  Saxon  words,  originally  by  mistake, 
but  now  by  established  custom  ;  bet  or  bote,  the  radical  of 
our  modern  words  better,  boot,  and  denoting  sufficiency,  com- 
pensation, more,  further,  or  something  additional,  by  way 
of  amendment ;  and  beuion  or  butan,  equivalent  to  without 
or  except. 

In  the  former  sense,  we  have  the  word  in  this  sentence  ; 
"  John  resides  at  York,  but  Thomas  resides  at  Bristol." 
The  primitive  sense  here  is,  Jolm  resides  at  York  ;  more, 
add  or  supply,  Thomas  resides  at  Bristol.  It  does  not  al- 
ways signify  opposition,  as  is  usually  supposed,  but  some 
addition  to  the  sense  of  what  goes  before. 

In  the  latter  sense,  or  that  of  butan,  it  is  used  in  this  pas- 
sage, "  He  hath  not  grieved  me,  but  in  part." — 2  Cor.  2.  5. 
That  is,  "  He  hath  not  grieved  me,  except  in  part."  The 
first  assertion  is  a  complete  negation  ;  the  word  but  (beutan) 
introduces  an  exception.  "  Nothing,  but  true  religion,  can 
give  us  peace  in  death."  Here  also  is  a  complete  negation  ; 
with  a  saving  introduced  by  but.  Nothing,  except  true  reli- 
gion. 

These  were  the  only  primitive  uses  of  but,  until,  by  means 
of  a  mistake,  a  third  sense  was  added,  which  is  that  of  only. 
Not  knowing  the  origin  and  true  meaning  of  but,  authors 
omitted  the  negation  in  certain  phrases  where  it  was  es- 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  83 

sehtial  to  a  true  construction ;  as  in  the  following  passages  : 
"Our  light  affliction,  which  is  but  for  a  moment." — 2  Cor.  4. 
"  If  they  kill  us,  we  shall  but  die."— 2  Kings  7. 

The  but,  in  these  passages,  is  buton,  be  out,  except ;  and, 
according  to  the  true  original  sense,  not  should  precede,  to 
give  the  sentence  a  negative  turn  :  "  Our  light  affliction  is 
not,  but  (except)  for  a  moment."  "  We  shall  not,  but  die." 
As  they  now  stand,  they  .would  in  strictness  signify,  Our 
light  affliction  is  except  for  a  moment — We  can  except  die, 
whicl^would  not  be  sense.  To  correct  the  sense,  and  repair 
the  breach  made  in  the  true  English  idiom,  by  this  mis- 
take, we  must  give  but  a  new  sense,  equivalent  to  only.  Thus 
we  are  obliged  to  patch  and  mend,  to  prevent  the  mischiefs 
of  innovation. 

The  history  of  this  word  but  should  be,  as  Johnson  ex- 
presses the  idea,  "  a  guide  to  reformers,  and  a  terror  to  in- 
novators." The  first  blunder  or  innovation  blended  two 
words  of  distinct  meanings  into  one,  in  orthography  and 
pronunciation.  Then  the  sense  and  etymology  being  ob- 
scured, authors. proceeded  to  a  further  change,  and  suppress- 
ed the  negation,  which  was  essential  to  the  buton.  We  have 
now  therefore  one  word  with  three  different  and  unallied 
meanings ;  and  to  these  may  be  reduced  the  whole  of  John- 
son's eighteen  definitions  of  but. 

Let  us  however  trace  the  mischief  of  this  change  a  little 
further.  As  th^word  but  is  now  used,  a  sentence  may  have 
the  same  meaning  with  or  without  the  negation.  For  exam- 
ple :  "he  hath  not  grieved  me,  but  in  part" — and  "  he  hath 
grieved  me,  but  in  part,"  have,  according  to  our  present  use 
of  but,  precisely  the  same  meaning.  Or  compare  different 
passages  of  scripture,  as  they  now  stand  in  our  Bibles. 

He  hath  not  grieved  me,  but  in  part. 
Our  light  affliction  is  but  for  a  moment. 

This  however  is  not  all ;  for  the  innovation  being  directed 
neither  by  knowledge  nor  judgment,  is  not  extended  to  all 
cases,  and  in  a  large  proportion  of  phrases  to  which  but  be- 
longs, it  is  used  in  its  original  sense  with  a  preceding  nega- 
tion, especially  with  nothing  and  none.  "  There  is  none 
good,  but  one,  that  is  God." — Matt.  19.  17.  This  is  cor- 
rect— there  is  none  good,  except  one,  that  is  God.  "  He 
saw  a  fig-tree  in  the  way,  and  found  nothing  thereon  but 
leaves  only." — Matt.  21.  19.  This  is  also  correct — "  he 


84  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

found  nothing,  except  leaves  ;"  the  only  is  redundant.  "  It 
amounts  to  no  more  but  this." — Locke,  Und.  b.  1.2.  This 
is  a  correct  English  phrase  ;  "It  amounts  to  no  more,  except 
this  ;"  but  it  is  nearly  obsolete. 

Hence  the  propriety  of  these  phrases  ;  "  They  could  not, 
but  be  known  before.'* — Locke,  1.2.  "  The  reader  may  be, 
nay,  cannot  chuse  but  be,  very  fallible  in  the  understanding 
of  it." — Locke,  3.  9.  Here  but  is  used  in  its  true  sense — 
They  could  not,  except  this,  be  known  before.  That  is,  the 
contrary  was  not  possible.  The  other  phrase  is  fre^iently 
found  in  Shakspeare  and  other  old  writers,  but  is  now  obso- 
lete. They  cannot  chuse  but — that  is,  they  have  no  choice, 
power  or  alternative,  except  to  be  very  fallible. 

But  is  called  in  our  grammars,  a  disjunctive  conjunction, 
connecting  sentences,  but  expressing  opposition  in  the  sense. 
To  illustrate  the  use  of  this  word  which  joins  and  disjoins 
at  the  same  time,  Lowth  gives  this  example:  "  You  and  I 
rode  to  London,  but  Peter  staid  at  home."  Here  the  bishop 
supposed  the  but  to  express  an  opposition  in  the  sense.  But 
let  but  be  omitted,  and  what  difference  will  the  omission 
make  in  the  sense  ?  "  You  and  I  rode  to  London,  Peter  staid 
at  home."  Is  the  opposition  in  the-  sense  less  clearly  mark- 
ed than  when  the  conjunction  is  used  ?  By  no  means.  And 
the  truth  is,  that  the  opposition  in  the  sense,  when  there  is 
any,  is  never  expressed  by  the  connective  at  all,  but  always 
by  the  following  sentence  or  phrase  :  "  Th^  have  mouths, 
but  they  speak  not ;  eyes  have  they,  but  they  see  not." — 
Psalm  115.  5.  Let  but  be  omitted — "  They  have  mouths, 
they  speak  not  ;  eyes  have  they,  they  see  not."  The  omis- 
sion of  the  connectives  makes  not  fhe  smallest  alteration  in 
the  sense,  so  far  as  opposition  or  difference  of  idea  in  the 
members  of  the  sentence  is  concerned.  Indeed  the  bishop 
is  most  unfortunate  in  the  example  selected  to  illustrate  his 
rule ;  for  the  copulative  and  may  be  used  for  but,  without 
the  least  alteration  in  the  sense  :  "  You  and  I  rode  to  Lon- 
don, and  Peter  staid  at  home."  In  this  sentence -the  oppo- 
sition is  as  completely  expressed  as  if  but  was  used  ;  which 
proves  that  the  opposition  in  the  sense  has  no  dependence 
on  the  connective. 

Nor  is  it  true  that  an  opposition  in  the  sense  always  fol- 
lows but :  "  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by  every 
word  which  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  God." — Matt. 
4.  4.  Here  the  last  clause  expresses  no  opposition,  but 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    JLANGUAGE.  85 

merely  an  additional  fact.  The  true  sense  of  but  when 
used  for  bote,  is  supply,  more,  further,  something  additional, 
to  complete  the  sense — it  may  be  in  opposition  to  what  has 
preceded  or  in  continuation  only.  In  general,  however,  the 
word  but  is  appropriately  used  before  a  clause  of  a  sentence, 
intended  to  introduce  a  new  and  somewhat  different  idea,  by 
way  of  modifying  the  sense  of  the  preceding  clause.  This 
use  is  very  naturally  deduced  from  the  original  sense  of  the 
word,  something  further  which  is  to  make  complete  or  quali- 
fy what  has  preceded. 

Than  is  a  connective  of  comparison  :  "  John  is  taller  than 
Peter." 

Because  is  a  mere  compound  of  by  and  cause — by  cause. 
"  It  is  the  case  of  some  to  contrive  some  false  periods  of  busi- 
ness, because  they  may  seem  men  of  dispatch." — Bacon  of 
Dispatch.  See  also  Apoth.  7.  6.  This  is  a  correct  English 
idiom,  Dr.  Lowth's  criticism  to  the  contrary  notwithstand- 
ing; but  it  is  now  obsolete. 

Exclamations. 

Exclamations  are  sounds  uttered  to  express  passions  and 
emotions  ;  usually  those  which  are  violent  or  sudden.  They 
are  called  interjections,  words  thrown  in  between  the  parts 
of  a  sentence.  But  this  is  not  always  the  fact,  and  the  name 
is  insignificant.  The  more  appropriate  name  is  exclama- 
tions; as  they  are  mere  irregular  sounds,  uttered  as  passion 
dictates,  and  not  subject  to  rules. 

A  few  of  these  sounds  however  become  the  customary 
modes  of  expressing  particular  passions  and  feelings  in  eve- 
ry nation.  Thus  in  English,  joy  and  surprise  and  grief  are 
expressed  by  oh,  uttered  with  a  different  tone  and'  counte- 
nance. Alas  expresses  grief  or  great  sorrow — pish,  pshaw, 
express  contempt.  Sometimes  verbs,  names,  and  attributes 
are  uttered  by  way  of  exclamation  in  a  detached  manner; 
as,  Hail !  Welcome  !  Bless  me  ! 

In  two  or  three  instances,  exclamations  are  followed  by 
names  and  substitutes  in  the  nominative  and  objective — as,  O 
thou  in  the  nominative — ah  me  in  the  objective.  Sometimes 
that  follows  O,  expressing  a  wish — "  O  that  the  Lord  would 
guide  my  ways."  But  in  such  cases,  we  may  consider  wish 
or  some  other  verb  to  be  understood. 
8 


86  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

Derivation. 

HOWEVER  numerous  may  be  the  words  in  a  language,  the 
number  of  radical  words  is  small.  Most  words  are  formed 
from  others  by  addition  of  certain  words  or  syllables, 
which  were  originally  distinct  words,  but  which  have  lost 
their  distinct  character,  and  are  now  used  only  in  combina- 
tion with  other  words.  Thus  er,  in  lover,  is  a  contraction  of 
wer,  a  Saxon  word  denoting  man,  [the  Latin  vir ;]  ness  de- 
notes state  or  condition  ;  ly  is  an  abbreviation  of  like  or 
liche  ;  fy  is  from  f ado,  to  make,  &,c. 

Most  of  the  English  derivatives  fall  under  the  following 
heads  : 

1.  Names   formed    from   names,   or  more  generally  from 
verbs,  by  the  addition  of  r,  er  or  or,  denoting  an  agent  ;  as, 
lover,  hater,  assignor,  flatterer,  from  love,  hate,  assign,  flat- 
ter.    In  a  few  instances,  words  thus  formed  are  less  regular ; 
as,  glazier  from  glass,  courtier  from  court,  parishioner  from 
parish. 

2.  Names  converted  into  verbs  by  the  prefix  to,  as,  from 
water,  cloud,  to  water,  to  cloud. 

3.  Attributes  converted  into  verbs  in  the  same  manner  ; 
as,  to  lame,  to  cool,  to  warm,  from  lame,  cool,  warm. 

4.  Verbs  formed  from  names  and  attributes  by  the  termi- 
nation ize  ;  as  method,  methodize  ;  system,  systemize ;  mor- 
al, moralize.     When  the  primitive  ends  with  a  vowel,  the 
consonant  t  is  prefixed  to  the  termination  ;  as  stigma,  stig- 
matize. 

5.  Verbs  formed  from  names  and  attributes  by  the  addition 
of  en  or  n  ;  as,  lengthen,  widen,  from  length,  wide. 

6.  Verbs  formed  by  fy;    as  brutify,  stratify,  from  brute, 
stratum. 

7.  Names   or   nouns  formed  from  attributes  by  ness ;  as 
goodness  from  good  ;  graciousness  from  gracious. 

8.  Names  formed  by  dom  and  ric,  denoting  jurisdiction ; 
as,  kingdom,  bishopric,  from  king  and  bishop.    Dom  and  ric 
are  nouns  denoting  jurisdiction  or  territory. 

9.  Names  formed  by  hood  and  ship,  denoting  state  or  con- 
dition; as,  manhood,  lordship,  from  man,  lord. 

10.  Names  ending  in  ment  and  age,  from  the  French,  de- 
noting state  or  act ;  as,  commandment,  parentage,  from  com- 
mand, parent. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  87 

11.  Names  in  er,  or,  and  ee,  used  by  way  of  opposition, 
the  former  denoting  the  agent,  the  latter  the  receiver,  or  per- 
son to  whom  an  act  is  performed  ;  as,  assignor,  assignee  ; 
indorser,  indorsee. 

12.  Adjectives   or    attributes    formed  from  names  by  the 
addition  of  y ;    as,  healthy,  from  health  ;    pithy,  from  pith ; 
or  ly  added  to  the  name  ;  as,  stately,  from  state.    Ly  is  a  con- 
traction of  like. 

13.  Attributes  formed  from  names  by  the  addition  of  ful ; 
as,  hopeful,  from  hope. 

14.  Attributes  formed  from  names   or    verbs    by   ible   or 
able ;  as,  payable,  from  pay  ;  creditable,  from  credit ;   com- 
pressible, from  compress.     Able  denotes  power  or  capacity. 

15.  Attributes  formed  from    names  or  attributes  by  ish; 
as,  whitish,  from  white  ;  blackish,  from  black ;  waggish,  from 
wag. 

16.  Attributes  formed  from  names  by  less ;  as,  fatherless, 
from  father  ;  .noting  destitution. 

17.  Attributes  formed    from  names   by  ous ;  as,  famous, 
from  fame  -gracious,  from  grace, 

18.  Attributes  formed  by  adding  some  to  names ;  as,  de- 
lightsome, from  delight. 

19.  Modifiers  formed  from  attributes   by  ly ;  as,  sweetly, 
from  sweet. 

20.  Names  to  express   females  formed   by  adding  ess  to 
the  masculine  gender  ;  as,  heiress,  from  heir. 

21.  Names  ending  in  ty,  some  directly  from  the  Latin, 
others  formed  from  attributes ;    as,  responsibility,  from  re- 
sponsible ;     contractility,    from    contractile ;    probity,    from 
probitas. 

22.  Attributes  formed  by  adding  al  to  names  ;  as  nation- 
al, from  nation. 

23.  Attributes  ending   in   ic   mostly    from    the    Latin,  or 
French,  but  some  of  them  by  the  addition  of  ic  to  a  name  ; 
as,  balsamic,  from  balsam ;  sulphuric,  from  sulphur. 

24.  Names    formed   by    ate   to  denote  the  union  of  sub- 
stances in  salts  ;  as,  carbonate,  in  the  chimical  nomenclature, 
denotes  carbonic  acid  combined  with  another  body. 


88  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

25.  Names  ending  in  ite  from  other  names,  and  denoting 
salts  formed  by  the  union  of  acids  with  other  bodies ;  as,  sul- 
phite, from  sulphur. 

26.  Names  ending  in  ret  formed  from  other  names,    and 
denoting  a  substance  combined  with  an  alkaline,  earthy  or 
metallic  base;    as,    sulphuret,  carburet,    from   sulphur   and 
carbon. 

27.  Names  formed  from  other  names  by  adding  cy ;  as, 
ensigncy,  captaincy,  from  ensign,  captain. 

Words  are  also  formed  by  prefixing  certain  syllables  and 
words,  some  of  them  significant  by  themselves ;  others 
never  used  but  in  composition  :  as,  re,  pre,  con,  mis,  sub, 
super;  and  great  numbers  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
words  ;  as,  bed-room,  ink-stand,  pen-knife. 

Syntax. 

Syntax  teaches  the  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences. 

A  sentence  is  a  number  of  words  arranged  in  due  order, 
and  forming  a  complete  affirmation  or  proposition.  In  phi- 
losophical language,  a  sentence  consists  of  a  subject  and  a 
predicate,  connected  by  an  affirmation.  Thus,  "  God  is  om- 
nipotent," is  a  complete  proposition  or  sentence,  composed  of 
God,  the  subject,  omnipotent,  the  predicate  or  thing  affirmed, 
connected  by  the  verb  is,  which  forms  the  affirmation. 

The  predicate  is  often  included  in  the  verb ;  as,  "  The  sun 
shines." 

A  simple  sentence  then  contains  one  subject  and  one  per- 
sonal verb  ;  that  is,  the  name  and  the  verb ;  and  without 
these,  no  proposition  can  be  formed. 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences, joined  by  connectives.  The  divisions  of  a  compound 
sentence  may  be  called  members  or  clauses. 

Sentences  are  declaratory,  as,  I  am  writing  ;  the  wind 
blows — imperative,  as,  go,  retire,  be  quiet — interrogative, 
as,  where  am  1 1  who  art  thou  ?  or  conditional^  as,  if  he 
should  arrive. 

The  rules  for  the  due  construction  of  sentences  fall  under 
three  heads.  First,  concord  or  agreement — Second,  gov- 
ernment—  Third>  arrangement  and  punctuation. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  of  words  in  construction  ;  as, 
verbs  in  person  and  number  with  their  nominatives ;  adjec- 
tives with  nouns,  in  number,  case,,  and  gender. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  89 

Government  is  when  one  word  requires  another  to  be  in 
a  particular  case,  mode  or  position. 

In  agreement,  the  name  or  noun  is  the  controlling  word, 
as  it  carries  with  it  the  verb,  the  substitute  and  the  attribute. 
In  government,  the  verb  is  the  controlling  word  ;  but  names 
and  prepositions  have  their  share  of  influence  also. 

RULE  I. 

A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  number  and 
person. 

Examples. 

In  solemn  style.  "  Thou  hast  loved  righteousness." — 
Heb.  1.  9. 

"  Thou  madcst  man  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,  and 
crownedst  him  with  glory  and  honor." — Heb.  2.  7. 

"  Thou  slialt  not  steal." — Commandment. 

"Art  thou  called,  being  a  servant?" — 1  Cor.  7.  21. 

"  But  ye  are  washed  ;  but  ye  are  sanctified." — I  Cor. 
6.  11. 

"  Know  ye  not  that  we  shall  judge  angels  ?" — 1   Cor.  6.  3. 

"  Do  ye  not  know  that  the  saints  shall  judge  the  world  T3 
—1  Cor.  1.  2. 

In  familiar  language.  "  This  is  the  word  of  promise." — 
Rom.  9.  9. 

I  write ;  John  reads ;  Newton  was  the  chief  of  astrono- 
mers ;  we  are  astonished  at  his  discoveries  ;  are  you  pleased 
with  the  new  chimistry  ?  Emilia  lias  an  elegant  form. 

NOTE  1. — The  nominative  to  a  verb  is  found  by  young  learners,  by 
asking  who  or  what  does  what  is  affirmed.  "  Eumenes,  a  young  man  of 
great  abilities,  inherited  a  large  estate  from  his  father.  His  father,  har- 
assed with  competitions,  and  perplexed  with  a  multiplicity  of  business, 
recommended  the  quiet  of  a  private  station."  Let  the  question  be  ask- 
ed, Who  inherited  a  large  estate  ?  The  answer  is,  Eumenes,  which  is  the 
nominative  to  the  verb  inherited.  Who  recommended  the  quiet  of  a 
private  station  ?  His  father,  which  is  therefore  the  nominative  to  the 
•  verb  recommended. 

NOTE  2. — Let  the  following  rules  be  observed  respecting  the  position 
of  the  nominative  : — 

I.  The  nominative  usually  precedes  the  verb  in  declarato- 
ry phrases;    as,    "God   created  the  world;"    "the  law  is  a 
rule  of  right."     But  the  nominative  may  be  separated  from 
8* 


90  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

its  verb,  by  a  member  of  a  period ;  as,  "Liberty,  say  the  fana- 
tic favorers  of  popular  power,  can  only  be  found  in  a  de- 
mocracy."— Anach.  ch.  62. 

II.  The  nominative  often  follows  an  intransitive  verb,  for 
such  a  verb  can  have  no  object  after  it,  and  that  position  of 
the  nominative  creates  no  ambiguity  :  thus,  "  Above  it  stood 
the    seraphim." — Isa.    6.       "  Gradual    sinks   the     breeze" — 
Thomson. 

III.  When  the   verb    is   preceded    by    here,   there,   hence, 
thence,  then,  thus,  yet,  so,  nor,  neither,  such,  the  same,  here- 
in, therein,  wherein,  and  perhaps  by  some  other  words,  the 
nominative  may   follow    the   verb,    especially    be ;  as,  "  here 
are  five  men;"  " there  was  a  man  sent  from  God;"  "hence 
arise  wars;"    "  thence  proceed  our   vicious   habits;"    "then 
came  the  scribes  and   Pharisees;"  "thus   saith   the   Lord." 
"  Yet  required   not   I   bread   of  the  governor." — Neh.  5.  18. 
"  So   panteth  'my   soul    after   thee,    O    Lord." — Psalm   42. 
"  Neither  hath   this   man  sinned  nor  his  parents." — John  9. 
"  Such  were  the  facts  ;"  "  the  same  was  the  fact."     "  Here- 
in consists   the   excellency   of  the   English   government." — 
Blacks.  Com.  b.  1. 

IV.  When  an  emphatical  attribute  introduces  a  sentence, 
the  nominative  may  follow  the  verb ;  as,  "  Great  is  the  Lord, 
glorious  are  his  works,  and  happy  is  the  man  who  has  an  in- 
terest in  his  favor." 

V.  In  certain  phrases,  which  are  conditional  or  hypothet- 
ical, the  sign  of  the  condition  may  be  omitted,  and  the  nom- 
inative placed  after  the  auxiliary ;  as,  "  Did  he  but  know  my 
anxiety  ;"  for,  if  he  did  but  know — "  Had  I  known  the  fact ;" 
for,  if  I  had  known — "  Would  they   consent ;"    for,   if  they 
would,  &-c. 

VI.  When  -the   words   whose,   his,  their,  her,  mine,  your, 
&/c.  precede  the  verb  with  a  governing   word,  the  nomina- 
tive may  follow  the  verb ;  as,   "  Out  of  whose  modifications 
have  been  made  most  complex  modes." — Locke,  2.  22.  10. 

VII.  In   interrogative    sentences,   the   nominative  follows 
the   verb   when   alone,   or   the  first  auxiliary;    as,  Believest 
thou?     Will  he   consent?     Has   he   been   promoted?     The 
nominative  also  follows   the   verb   in   the   imperative  mode; 
as,  go  thou,  "  be  ye  warmed  and  filled."     But  after  a  single 

t  verb,  the  nominative  is  commonly  omitted ;  as,  arise,  flee. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  91 

NOTE  3. — In  poetry,  the  nominative  is  often  omitted  in  interrogative 
sentences,  in  cases  where  in  prose  the  omission  would  be  improper ;  as,  * 
"  Lives  there  who  loves  his  pain  ?" — Milton.     That  is,  lives  there  a  man 
or  person. 

NOTE  4. — In  the  answer  to  a  question,  the  whole  sentence  is  usually 
omitted,  except  the  name  which  is  the  principal  subject  of  the  interro- 
gation ;  as,  "  Who  made  the  chief  discoveries  concerning  vapor  ?"  Black. 
*'  Whose  theory  of  respiration  is  generally  received?"  Crawford's. 

NOTE  5. — In  poetry,  the  verb  in  certain  phrases  is  omitted,  chiefly 
such  verbs  as  express  an  address  or  answer  ;  as,  "  To  whom  the  mon- 
arch"— that  is,  said  or  replied. 

NOTE  6. — When  a  verb  is  placed  between  two  nominatives  in  differ- 
ent numbers,  it  may  agree  with  either ;  but  generally  is  made  to  agree 
with  the  first,  and  this  may  be  considered  as  preferable  ;  as,  "  His  meat 
was  locusts  and  wild  honey."  "  It  [piracy]  is  the  remains  of  the  man- 
ners of  ancient  Greece." — jlnach.  ch.  3(5. 

NOTE  7. — Verbs  follow  the  connective  than,  without  a  nominative 
expressed  ;  as,  "  Not  that  any  thing  occurs  in  consequence  of  our  late 
loss,  more  afflictive  than  was  to  be  expected." — Life  of  Cowper,  Let.  62. 

"  He  felt  himself  addicted  to  philosophical  speculations,  with  more  ar- 
dor than  consisted  with  the  duties  of  a  Roman  and  a  senator." — Mur- 
phey's  Tacitus,  4.  57. 

"  All  words  that  lead  the  mind  to  any  other  ideas,  than  are  supposed 
really  to  exist  in  that  thing." — Locke,  2.  25. 

These  forms  of  expression  seem  to  be  elliptical ;  "  more  afflictive  than 
that  which  was  to  be  expected."  That  which  or  those  which  generally 
supply  the  ellipsis. 

NOTE  8. — We  sometimes  see  a  nominative  introducing  a  sentence,  the 
sense  suddenly  interrupted,  and  the  nominative  left  without  its  intended 
verb  ;  as,  "  The  name  of  a  procession ;  what  a  great  mixture  of  inde- 
pendent ideas  of  persons,  habits,  tapers,  orders,  motions,  sounds, does  it 
contain  !"  &c. — Locke,  3.  5.  13.  This  form  of  expression  is  often  very 
striking  in  animated  discourse.  The  first  words  being  the  subject  of  the 
discourse,  and  important,  are  made  to  usher  in  the  sentence,  to  invite  at- 
tention ;  and  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  in  the  fervor  of  animation,  quit- 
ting the  trammels  of  a  formal  arrangement,  rushes  forward  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  thing  mentioned,  and  presents  the  more  striking  ideas  in 
the  form  of  exclamation. 

NOTE  9. — We  have  one  phrase  in  which  the  personal  pronoun  me 
precedes  a  verb  in  the  third  person — methinks,  methought.  Anciently, 
him  was  used  in  like  manner — him  thuhte,  him  thought. — Alf.  Orosius. 
And  names  also;  as,  "  tham  halgan  Gast  was  gethuht."  It  thought  (or 
seemed  good)  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  Lamb.  Sax.  Laws.  21.  Him,  me 
and  tham  are  here  in  the  Saxon  dative  case.  Me  thinks,  it  seems  to 
me,  mihi  videtur. 

RULE  II. 

A  name,  a  nominative  case  or  a  sentence  joined  with  a 
participle  of  the  present  tense,  may  stand  in  construction 


92  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

without  a  verb,  forming  the  case  absolute,  or  clause  inde- 
pendent; as,  "  Jesus  had  conveyed  himself  away,  a  multi- 
tude being  in  that  place." — John  5.  13.  Here  multitude,  the 
name,  joined  with  being,  stands  without  a  verb. 

"  By  memory  we  conceive  heat  or  light,  yellow  or  sweet, 
the  object  being  removed." — Locke,  2.  10. 

"  I  have,  notwithstanding  this  discouragement,  attempted 
a  dictionary  of  the  English  language." — Johnson's  Preface. 

"  Whatever  substance  begins  to  exist,  it  must,  during  its 
existence,  necessarily  be  the  same." — Locke,  2.  27.  28.* 

"  The  penalty  shall  be  fine  and  imprisonment,  any  law  or 
custom  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding" 

The  latter  phraseology  is  peculiar  to  the  technical  law 
style.  In  no  other  case  does  notwithstanding  follow  the 
sentence.  But  this  position  makes  no  difference  in  the  true 
construction,  which  is,  "any  law  or  custom  to  the  contrary 
not  opposing" — the  real  clause  independent. 

It  is  very  common,  when  this  participle  agrees  with  a 
number  of  words,  or  a  whole  clause,  to  omit  the  whole  ex- 
cept the  participle ;  and  in  this  use  of  notwithstanding,  we 
have  a  striking  proof  of  the  value  of  abbreviations  in  lan- 
guage. For  example ;  "  Moses  said,  Let  no  man  leave  of  it 
till  the  morning.  Notwithstanding,  they  hearkened  not  to 
Moses." — Ex.  16.  20.  Here  notwithstanding  stands  with- 
out the  clause  to  which  it  belongs  ;  to  complete  the  sense  in 
words,  it  would  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  whole  preceding 
clause,  or  the  substance  of  it — "  Moses  said,  Let  no  man  leave 
of  it  until  the  morning.  Notwithstanding  this  command  of 
Moses,  or  notwithstanding  Moses  $aid  that  which  has  been 
recited,  they  hearkened  not  to  Moses." 

"  Folly  meets  with  success  in  this  world ;  but  it  is  true, 
notwithstanding,  that  it  labors  under  disadvantages." — For- 
teus,  Lecture  13.  This  passage  at  length  would  read  thus — 


*  During  is  the  participle  of  an  old  verb  now  obsolete ;  but  its  deriv- 
atives endure  and  enduring  are  in  use.  During  is  usually  called  ,a  pre- 
position ;  but  no  consideration  can  justify  the  practice — it  retains  its  true 
verbal  sense.  Equally  erroneous  is  the  classification  of  notwithstand- 
ing with  conjunctions.  The  two  words  not  and  loithstanding  are 
joined  indeed  without  reason  ;  but  the  resolution  of  sentences  in  which 
this  compound  is  found,  demands  a  restoration  of  it  to  its  true  place  and 
character. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  93 

"  Folly  meets  with  success  in  the  world  ;  but  it  is  true,  not' 
withstanding  folly  meets  with  success  in  the  world,  that  it 
labors  under  disadvantages."  By  supplying  what  is  really 
omitted,  yet  perfectly  well  understood,  we  learn  the  true 
construction ;  so  that  notwithstanding  is  a  participle  always 
agreeing  with  a  word  or  clause,  expressed  or  understood, 
and  forming  the  independent  clause,  and  by  a  customary 
ellipsis,  it  stands  alone  in  the  place  of  that  clause. 

Such  is  its  general  use  in  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures. 
In  the  following  passage,  the  sentence  is  expressed — "  Not- 
withstanding I  have  spoken  unto  you." — Jer.  35.  That  is, 
"  This  fact,  /  have  spoken  unto  you,  not  opposing  or  pre- 
venting." Or,  in  other  words,  "  In  opposition  to  this  fact." 

It  is  also  very  common  to  use  a  substitute,  this,  that,  which 
or  what,  for  the  whole  sentence;  as,  "Bodies  which  have 
no  taste,  and  no  power  of  affecting  the  skin,  may,  notwith- 
standing this,  [notwithstanding  they  have  no  taste,  and  no 
power  to  affect  the  skin,]  act  upon  organs  which  are  more 
delicate." — Fourcroy.  Translation. 

I  have  included  in  hooks,  the  words  for  which  this  is  a 
substitute. 

"To  account  for  the  misery  that  men  bring  on  then*- 
selves,  notwithstanding  that,  they  do  all  in  earnest  pursue 
happiness,  we  must  consider  how  things  come  to  be  repre- 
sented to  our  desires  under  deceitful  appearances." — Locke, 
2.  21.  61. 

Here  that,  a  substitute,  is  used,  and  the  sentence  also  for 
which  it  is  a  substitute.  This  is  correct  English ;  but  it  is 
usual  to  omit  the  substitute,  when  the  sentence  is  expressed 
— "Notwithstanding  they  do  all  in  earnest  pursue  happi- 
ness." 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  omit  the  participle  of  the  present 
tense,  when  a  participle  of  the  perfect  tense  is  employed — 
"  The  Son  of  God,  while  clothed  in  flesh,  was  subject  to  all 
the  frailties  and  inconveniences  of  human  nature,  sin  cx- 
cepted" — Locke,  3.  9.  That  is,  sin  being  excepted ;  the 
clause  independent. 

This  omission  is  more  frequent  when  the  participle  pro- 
vided  is  used,  than  in  any  other  case.  "  In  the  one  case, 
provided  the  facts  on  which  it  is  founded  be  sufficiently  nu- 
merous, the  conclusion  is  said  to  be  morally  certain." — 
Campbell  on  Rhet.  1.  114.  Here  being  is  omitted,  and  the 


94  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

whole  clause  in  italics  is  independent — "  Tlie  facts  on  which 
it  is  founded  are  sufficiently  numerous,  that  being  provided, 
the  conclusion  is  morally  certain."  Provided}  in  such  cases, 
is  equivalent  to  given,  admitted,  or  supposed. 

"  In  mathematical  reasoning,  provided  you  are  ascertain- 
ed of  the  regular  procedure  of  the  mind,  to  affirm  that  the 
conclusion  is  false,  implies  a  contradiction." — 2bm.  134. 

In  this  phrase,  that  may  follow  provided — provided  that, 
you  are  ascertained,  &c.  as  in  the  case  of  notwithstanding, 
before  mentioned — that  being  a  definitive  substitute,  point- 
ing to  the  following  sentence — that  which  follows  being  pro- 
vided* 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  authors  to  carry  the  practice  of 
abridging  discourse  so  far  as  to  obscure  the  common  regu- 
lar construction.  An  instance  frequently  occurs  in  the 
omission  both  of  the  nominative  and  the  participle  in  the 
case  independent.  For  example:  "Conscious  of  his  own 
weight  and  importance,  his  conduct  in  parliament  would  be 
directed  by  nothing  but  the  constitutional  duty  of  a  peer." — 
Junius,  Let.  19.  Here  is  no  noun  expressed  to  which  con- 
scious can  be  referred.  We  are  therefore  to  supply  the 
necessary  words,  to  complete  the  construction — "  He  being 
conscious" — forming  the  clause  independent. 

RULE  III. 

A  sentence,  a  number  of  words,  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence, 
may  be  the  nominative  to  a  verb,  in  which  case  the  verb  is 
always  in  the  third  person  of  the  singular  number  ;  as,  "  All 
that  is  in  a  man's  power  in  this  case,  is,  only  to  observe  what 
the  ideas  are  which  take  their  turns  in  the  understanding." 
Locke,  2.  14.  Here  the  whole  clause  in  italics  is  the  nom- 
inative to  is. 

"  To  attack  vices  in  the  abstract,  without  touching  per- 
sons, may  be  safe  fighting  indeed,  but  it  is  fighting  with  shad- 
ows."— Pope,  Let.  48. 

"  I  deny  that  men's  coming  to  the  use  of  reason,  is  the 
time  of  their  discovery." — Locke,  1.  2. 

*  Provided  that,  says  Johnson,  is  an  adverbial  expression,  and  we 
sometimes  see  provided  numbered  among  the  conjunctions,  as  its  corres- 
pondent word  is  in  French.  What  strange  work  has  been  made  with 
grammar ! 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  95 

"  That  any  thing  can  exist  without  existing  in  space,  is 
to  my  mind  incomprehensible." — Darwin,  Zoon.  sect.  14. 
Here  the  definitive  substitute  may  be  transferred  to  a  place 
next  before  the  verb — "  Any  thing  can  exist,  without  exist- 
ing in  space,"  that  [whole  proposition]  is  incomprehensible. 

No  species  of  sentences  falls  under  this  rule  more  fre- 
quently than  those  which  begin  with  the  infinitive  mode. 
"'*  To  show  how  the  understanding  proceeds  herein,  is  the  de- 
sign of  the  following  discourse." — Locke,  1.  4. 

This  sentence  may  be  inverted  without  the  change  of  a 
single  word.  "  The  design  of  the  following  discourse  is  to 
show,"  &/c. 

"  To  fear  no  eye  and  to  suspect  no  tongue,  is  the  great 
prerogative  of  innocence." — Rambler.  This  sentence  may 
be  inverted  ;  but  according  to  our  idiom,  the  substitute  it 
would  precede  the  verb — "  it  is  the  great  prerogative  of  in- 
nocence to  fear,"  &c.  The  sentence  thus  inverted  would 
be  good  English  without  the  substitute — "  The  great  pre- 
rogative of  innocence  is" — but  this  alters  the  sense,  and 
limits  the  prerogatives  of  innocence  to  the  one  mentioned. 
By  changing  the  to  a,  this  inconvenience  would  be  remedied ; 
but  in  either  case  the  force  of  the  sentiment  would  be  im- 
paired. 

"  Our  ideas  of  eternity  can  be  nothing  but  an  infinite  suc- 
cession of  moments  of  duration.  " — Locke,  2.  17.  16.  "  The 
notion  they  have  of  duration,  forces  them  to  conceive,"  &/c. — 
Ibm.  In  these  passages,  we  observe  the  nominative  or  subject 
of  the  affirmation  consists  of  several  words ;  for  it  is  not  simply 
an  idea  which  is  affirmed  to  be  nothing  but  an  infinite  suc- 
cession of  moments  of  duration ;  but  our  idea  of  eternity. 
In  like  manner,  attributes  and  other  words  often  make  an 
essential  part  of  the  nominative.  "  A  wise  son  maketh  a 
glad  father  ;  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  moth- 
er." Abstract  the  name  from  its  attribute,  and  the  proposi- 
tions cannot  always  be  true — "  A  son  maketh  a  glad  father 
— a  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother." 

"  He  that  gathereth  in  summer  is  a  wise  son."  Here  the 
predicate  belongs  to  the  person  described — "  He  that  gath- 
ereth in  summer."  Take  away  the  description,  that  gath- 
ereth in  summer,  and  the  affirmation  ceases  to  be  true  or  be- 
comes inapplicable. 

These  sentences  or  clauses  thus  constituting  the  subject 
of  an  affirmation,  may  be  termed  nominative  sentences. 


96  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

RULE  IV. 

The  infinitive  mode  may  be  the  nominative  to  a  personal 
verb;  as,  "  to  see  is  desirable;  to  die  is  the  inevitable  lot  of 
men."  Sometimes  an  attribute  is  joined  with  the  infinitive  ; 
as,  "  to  be  blind  is  calamitous."  In  this  case  the  attribute 
has  no  name  expressed  to  which  it  refers.  The  proposition 
is  abstract,  and  applicable  to  any  human  being,  but  not  ap- 
plied to  any. 

RULE  V. 

In  some  cases  the  imperative  verb  is  used  without  a  defi- 
nite nominative ;  as,  "  I  will  not  take  any  thing  that  is  thine 
— save  only  that  which  the  young  men  have  eaten." — Gen. 
14.  24. 

t '  Israel  burned  none,  save  Hazor  only." — Josh.  11.  13. 

"I  would  that  all — were  such  as  I  am,  except  these  bonds." 
Acts  26.  29. 

"  Our  ideas  are  movements  of  the  nerves  of  sense,  as  of 
the  optic  nerve  in  recollecting  visible  ideas,  suppose  of  a  tri- 
angular piece  of  ivory." — Darwin,  Zoon.  Led.  39. 

This  use  of  certain  verbs  in  the  imperative  is  very  fre- 
quent, and  there  is  a  peculiar  felicity  in  being  thus  able  to 
use  a  verb  in  its  true  sense  and  with  its  proper  object,  with- 
out specifying  a  nominative ;  for  the  verb  is  thus  left  ap- 
plicable to  the  first,  second  or  third  person.  I  may  save  or 
except,  or  you  may  except,  or  we  may  suppose.  If  we  ex- 
amine these  sentences,  we  shall  be  convinced  of  the  propri- 
ety of  the  idiom ;  for  the  ideas  require  no  application  to 
any  person  whatever. 

RULE  VI. 

When  the  same  thing  is  affirmed  or  predicated  of  two  or 
more  subjects,  in  the  singular  number,  the  nominatives  are 
joined  by  the  copulative  and,  with  a  verb  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  plural  number  ;  as,  "  John  and  Thomas  and  Pe- 
ter reside  at  Oxford."  In  this  sentence,  residence  at  Oxford 
is  a  predicate  common  to  three  persons  ;  and  instead  of 
three  affirmations — John  resides  at  Oxford,  Thomas  resides 
at  Oxford,  Peter  resides  at  Oxford — the  three  names  are 
joined  by  and,  and  one  verb  in  the  plural  applied  to  the 
whole  number. 

"  Reason  and  truth  constitute  intellectual  gold,  which  de- 
fies destruction." — Johnson.  "  Why  are  whiteness  and  cold- 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  97 

ness  in  snow?" — Locke.  "Your  lot  and  mine,  in  this  re- 
spect, have  been -very  different." — Cowp.  Let.  38.* 

In  like  manner,  names  and  attributes,  representing  all  the 
subjects  or  particulars  connected  by  and,  must  be  in  the 
plural  number;  as,  " Plato  and  Aristotle  ivere  learned  men; 
these  philosophers  founded  the  Academic  and  Peripatetic 
schools."  "  The  most  able  generals  of  the  last  century 
were  Frederic  of  Prussia,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and 
Prince  Eugene."  "We  look  on  the  whiteness  and  softness, 
produced  in  the  wax,  not  as  qualities  in  the  sun,  but  effects 
produced  by  its  powers." — Locke,  2.  8. 

When  three  or  more  particulars  are  enumerated,  the  con- 
nective may  be  omitted,  except  before  the  last;  as,  "The 
particular  bulk,  number,  figure  and  motion  of  the  parts  of 
fire  or  snow  are  really  in  them." — Locke,  2.  8.  The  copu- 
lative may,  however,  be  inserted  where  the  repetition  of  it 
adds  to  the  ideas  dignity,  force  or  solemnity. 

When  terms  of  number  are  employed  to  specify  the  par- 
ticulars, the  copulative  is  suppressed;  as,  "These  three  then, 
first  ^the  law  of  God,  secondly  the  law  of  political  societies, 
thirdly  the  law  of  fashion  or  private  censure,  are  those  to 
which  men  compare  their  actions." — Locke,  2.  28.  13.  ^  , 

NOTE  1. — The  rule  for  the  use  of  a  plural  verb  with  two  or  more 
names  in.  the  singular  number,  connected  by  and,  is  laid  down  by  critics 
with  too  much  positiveness  and  universality.  On  original  principles,  all 
the  names,  except  the  first,  are  in  the  objective  case ;  for  it  is  probable 
that  and  contains  in  it  the  verb  add.  "  John  and  Thomas  and  Peter  re- 
side at  York,"  on  primitive  principles,  must  be  thus  resolved — "  John, 
add  Thomas,  add  Peter  reside  at  York."  But  without  resorting  to  first 
principles,  which  are  now  lost  or  obscured,  the  use  of  the  singular  verb 
may  be  justified  by  considering  the  verb  to  be  understood  after  each 
name;  and  that  which  is  expressed,  agreeing  only  with  the  last;  as, 
"  Nor  were  the  young  fellows  so  wholly  lost  to  a  sense  of  right,  as  pride 
and  conceit  has  since  made  them  affect  to  be." — Rambler,  No.  97.  That 
is,  as  pride  has  and  as  conceit  has.  "  Their  safety  and  v/elfare  is  most 
concerned." — Spectator,  No.  121.  In  our  best  authors  the^singular  verb 
is  frequent  in  such  sentences.! 

*  Is  the  last  example  an  evidence  that  mine  is  in  the  possessive  case  !  ! 

t  This  was  also  a  very  common  practice  with  the  best  Greek  and  Ro- 
man writers — "  Metis  enim,  et  rcffo,  et  consilium  in  senibus  est. — Cicero, 
de  Senec.  ca.  19. 

"  Sed  etiam  ipsius  terras  vis.et  natura  delectat." — Ibm.  15. 

See  Homer,  11.  1.  61. 

See  also  examples  in  the  Greek  Testament.— Matt.  12.  31.— 13.  42. 
50.— 16.  17.— 28.  1.    . 
9 


98  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

What  will  the  hypercritic  say  to  this  sentence,  "  Either  sex  and  every 
age  was  engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  industry." — Gib.  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  10. 
Is  not  the  distributive  effect  of  either  and  every,  such  as  to  demand  a 
singular  verb  ?  So  in  the  following  :  "  The  judicial  and  every  other 
power  is  accountable  to  the  legislative." — Paley.  Phil.  6.  8. 

NOTE  2. — When  names  and  pronouns  belonging  to  different  persons, 
are  thus  joined,  the  plural  pronoun  must  be  of  the  first  person  in  pref- 
erence to  the  second  and  third,  and  of  the  second  in  preference  to  the 
third — /,  you  and  he  are  represented  by  we;  you  and  he,  by  you.  Pope 
in  one  of  his  letters  makes  you  or  /  to  be  represented  by  we  or  you. 
"  Either  you  or  I  are  not  in  love  with  the  other."  The  sentence  is  an 
awkward  one,  and  not  to  be  imitated. 

RULE  VII. 

When  an  affirmation  or  predicate  refers  to  one  subject 
only  among  a  number,  which  are  separately  named  in  the 
singular  number,  the  subjects  are  joined  by  the  alternative 
or  or  nor,  with  a  verb,  substitute  and  name  in  the  singular 
number;  as,  "Either  John  or  Peter  was  at  the  Exchange 
yesterday;  but  neither  John  nor  Peter  is  there  to-day." 

Errors. — "  A  circle  or  square  are  the  same  in  idea." 

Locke,  2.  8. 
"But  whiteness  or  redness  are  not  in  the  porphyry." 

Ibm, 

"Neither  of  them  [Tillotson  and  Temple]  are  remarkable 
for  precision." — Blair. 

Substitutes  for  sentences,  whether  they  represent  a  single 
clause,  or  the  parts  of  .a  compound  sentence,  are  always  in 
the  singular  number;  as,  "It  is  true  indeed  that  many  have 
neglected  opportunities  of  raising  themselves  to  honor  and 
to  wealth,  and  rejected  the  kindest  offers  of  fortune." — Ram- 
bler, No.  58.  Here  it  and  that  refer  to  the  clauses  which 
follow—"  It  is  true  that,  many  have  rejected  the  kindest  of- 
fers," &,c. 

"It  being  unavoidable  in  discourses,  differing  from  the 
ordinary  received  notions,  either  to  make  new  words,  or  to 
use  old  words  in  a  new  signification." — Locke,  2.  12.  14. 
Here  it  refers  to  the  two  alternative  clauses  which  succeed. 

-RULE  VIII. 

Collective  or  aggregate  names,  comprehending  two  or 
more  individuals  under  a  term  in  the  singular  number,  have 


OF    THE    ENGLISH 

a  verb  or  pronoun  to  agree  with  them  in  the  singular  or  plu- 
ral ;  as,  The  council  is  or  are  unanimous ;  the  company  was 
or  were  collected ;  this  people,  or  these  people. 

No  precise  rule  can  be  given  to  direct,  in  every  case, 
which  number  is  to  be  used.  Much  regard  is  to  be  had  to 
usage,  and  to  the  unity  or  plurality  of  idea.  In  general, 
modern  practice  inclines  to  the  use  of  the  plural  verb  and 
pronoun ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  daily  use  of  clergy,  nobil- 
ity, court,  council,  commonalty,  audience,  enemy,  and  the 
like. 

"  The  clergy  began  to  withdraw  themselves  from  the  tem- 
poral courts." — Blackstonc's  Com.  Introduction. 

"  Let  us  take  a  view  of  the  principal  incidents  attending 
the  nobility,  exclusive  of  their  capacity  as  hereditary  coun- 
selors of  the  crown." — BL  Com.  1.  12. 

"The  commonalty  are  divided  into  several  degrees." 

Ibm. 

"  The  enemy  were  driven  from  their  works." 

Portuguese  Asia,  Mickle,  163. 

"The  chorus  prepare  resistance  at  his  first  approach — the 
chorus  sings  of  the  battle — the  chorus  entertains  the  stage." 

Johnson's  Life  of  Milton. 

"The  nobility  are  the  pillars  to  support  the  throne." 

BL  Com.  1.  2. 

Party  and  army,  in  customary  language,  are  joined  with  a 
verb  in  the  singular  number.  Constitution  cannot  be  plu- 
ral. Church  may  be  singular  or  plural.  Mankind  is  almost 
always  plural. 

The  most  common  and  palpable  mistakes  in  the  applica- 
tion of  this  rule,  occur  in  the  use  of  sort  and  kind,  with  a 
plural  pronoun — these  sort,  those  kind.  This  fault  infects  the 
works  of  our  best  writers ;  but  these  words  are  strictly  singu- 
lar, and  ought  so  to  be  used. 

When  a  collective  name  is  preceded  by  a  definitive  which 
clearly  limits  the  sense  of  the  word  to  an  aggregate  with  an 
idea  of  unity,  it  requires  a  verb  and  pronoun  to  agree  with 
it  in  the  singular  number ;  as,  a  company  of  troops  was  de- 
tached; a  troop  of  cavalry  was  raised;  this  people  is  'be- 
come a  great  nation ;  that  assembly  was  numerous;  a  "gov- 
ernment established  by  that  people." — Bl.  Com.  1.  2. 


100  Aft  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

Yet  our  language  seems  to  be  averse  to  the  use  of  it,  as 
the  substitute  for  names  even  thus  limited  by  a,  this  or  that. 
"  How  long  will  that  people  provoke  me,  and  how  long  will 
it  be  ere  they  will  believe  me  for  all  the  signs  that  I^have 
shewed  among  them  1" — Num.  14.  11.  "  Liberty  should 
reach  every  individual  of  a  people;  as  they  all  share  one 
common  nature."— Spectator,  No.  287.  In  these  passages, 
it,  in  the  place  of  they,  would  not  be  relished  by  an  English 
ear;  nor  is  it  ever  used  in  similar  cases.* 

RULE  IX. 

When  the  nominative  consists  of  several  words,  and  the 
last  of  the  names  is  in  the  plural  number,  the  verb  is  com- 
monly in  the  plural  also:  "A  part  of  the  exports  consist  of 
raw  silk."  "  The  number  of  oysters  increase." — Golds. 
Anim.  Nat.  Vol.  4.  ch.  3.  "  Of  which  seeming  equality  we 
have  no  other  measure,  but  such  as  the  train  of  our  ideas 
have  lodged  in  our  memories." — Locke,  2.  14.  21.  "  The 
greater  part  of  philosophers  have  acknowledged  the  excel- 
lence of  this  government." — Anach.  Vol.  5.  p.  272. 

NOTE  1 . — The  practice  of  using  a  plural  verb  after  these  and  similar 
nominatives,  is  a  proof  of  the  propriety  of  considering  the  whole  of  the 
words,  or  the  name  and  its  adjuncts,  as  the  actual  nominative.  Separate 
the  words  part  and  exports  in  the  first  example,  and  the  affirmation  of 
the  verb  cannot  with  truth  be  applied  to  either ;  and  as  the  whole  must 
be  considered  as  the  nominative,  the  verb  is  very  naturally  connected  in 
number  with  the  last  name. 

NOTE  2. — When  an  aggregate  amount  is  expressed  by  the  plural 
names  of  the  particulars  composing  that  amount,  the  verb  is  often  in  the 
singular  number ;  as,  "  There  was  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand pounds  sterling." — Mavor's  Voyages,  1. 

However  repugnant  to  the  principles  of  grammar,  this  may  seem  at 
first  view,  the  practice  is  correct;  for  the  affirmation  is  not  made  of  the 
individual  parts  or  divisions  named,  the  pounds,  but  of  the  entire  sum  or 
amount.  (See  this  subject  more  fully  explained  under  Rule  XIV.) 

The  correctness  of  these  rules  as  universal,  is  questioned ;  and  in  some 
cases,  it  may  not  be  vindicable.  A  part  of  the  exports  consists,  seems 
to  be  the  most  correct ;  yet,  a  part  of  philosophers  have,  seems  to  be 
more  agreeable  to  usage  than  a  part  of  philosophers  has. 


names  1 

2. 

a  noun  in  the  singular,  of  the  feminine  gender. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  101: 

RULE  X. 

Pronouns  or  substitutes  must  agree  with  the  names  they 
represent,  in  number,  gender  and  person ;  as, 

"Mine  answer  to  them  that  do  examine  me  is  this" 

I  Cor.  9.  3. 

"These  are  not  the  children  of  God."— Rom.  9.  8. 

"Speak  to  the  children  of  Israel,  and  say  to  them,  when  ye 
come  into  the  land  whither  I  bring  you." — Num.  15.  18. 

"  This  is  the  heir ;  come,  let  us  kill  him,  and  let  us  seize  on 
his-  inheritance." — Matt.  21.  38. 

"Esther  put  on  her  royal  apparel — she  obtained  favor  in 
his  sight — then  the  king  said  unto  her" — Esth.  5. 

"  A  river  went  out  of  Eden  to  water  the  garden,  and  it  was 
parted."— Gen.  2.  10. 

"The  woman  whom  thou  gavest  to  be  with  me." 

Gen.  3.  12. 

"Ignatius,  who  was  bishop  of  Antioch,  conversed  with  the 
apostles." — Paley's  Evid.  Sect.  3. 

"  A  letter,  which  is  just  received,  gives  us  the  news." 

"O  thou  who  rulest  in  the  heavens." 

Who  and  icJiom  are  exclusively  the  substitutes  for  per- 
sons; whose  is  of  all  genders,  and  as  correctly  applied  to 
things  as  to  persons. 

"  The  question  whose  solution  I  require." — Dryden. 

"That  forbidden  fruit  whose  mortal  taste." — Milton. 

"  A  system  whose  imagined  suns." — Goldsmith. 

"These  are  the  charming  agonies  of  love 
Whose  miseries  delight." — Thorn. 

/£,  though  neuter,  is  used  as  the  substitute  for  infant  or 
child;  the  distinction  of  sex  in  the  first  period  of  life  being 
disregarded. 

Formerly  which  was  used  as  a  substitute  for  persons ;  as 
appears  from  old  authors,  and  especially  in  the  vulgar  ver- 
sion of  the  scriptures — "  mighty  men  which  were  of  old." 
But  this  use  of  the  word  is  entirely  discarded.  Which  how- 
ever represents  persons,  when  a  question  is  asked  or  dis- 
crimination intended ;  as,  which  of  the  men  was  it ;  I  know 
not  which  person  it  was. 
9* 


lO£  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

Who  is  sometimes  used  as  the  substitute  for  things,  but 
most  unwarrantably  :  "  The  countries  who." — Davenant  on 
Rev.  2.  13.  "The  towns  who." — Hume,  Contin.  11. ch.  10. 
"  The  faction  or  party  who." — Equally  faulty  is  the  use  of 
who  and  whom  for  brutes  :  "  The  birds  who — " 

The  use  of  it  for  a  sentence,  seems  to  have  given  rise  to 
a  very  vague  application  of  the  word  in  phrases  like  this  : 
How  shall  I  contrive  it  to  attend  court  ?  How  fares  it  with 
you  ?  But  sued  phrases,  whatever  may  have  given  rise  to 
them,  are  used  chiefly  in  familiar  colloquial  language,  and 
are  deemed  inelegant  in  any  other  style. 

A  more  justifiable  use  of  it  is  seen  in  this  sentence  :  "  But 
it  is  not  this  real  essence  that  distinguishes  them  into  species  ; 
it  is  men  who  range  them  into  sorts,"  &,c. — Locke,  3.  6.  36. 

Here  it  is  in  the  singular,  though  referring  to  men  in  the 
plural.  The  cause  or  origin  of  this,  in  our  language  as  in 
others,  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  disposition  of  the  mind 
to  combine  the  particular  agents  employed  in  performing  an 
act,  into  a  single  agent.  The  unity  of  the  act  or  effect  seems 
to  predominate  in  idea,  and  control  the  grammatical  construc- 
tion of  the  substitute. 

RULE  XI. 

In  compound  sentences,  a  single  substitute,  who,  which  or 
that,  employed  to  introduce  a  new  clause,  is  the  nominative 
to  the  verb  or  verbs  belonging  to  that  clause,  and  to  others 
connected  with  it ;  as,  "  The  thirst  after  curiosities,  which 
often  draws  contempt." — Rambler,  No.  83.  "  He  who  suf- 
fers not  his  faculties  to  lie  torpid  has  a  chance  of  doing 
good." — Ibm.  "  They  that  are  after  the  flesh,  do  mind  the 
things  of  the  flesh." — Rom.  8.  5.  "  Among  those  who  are 
the  most  richly  endowed  by  nature,  and  [are]  accomplished 
by  their  own  industry,  how  few  are  there  whose  virtues  are 
not  obscured  by  the  ignorance,  prejudice  or  envy  of  their 
beholders  \"—Spec.  No.  255. 

In  a  few  instances,  the  substitute  for  a  sentence  or  a  clause, 
is  introduced  as  the  nominative  to  a  verb  before  the  sentence 
or  clause,  which  it  represents ;  as,  "  There  was  therefore, 
which  is  all  that  we  assert,  a  course  of  life  pursued  by  them, 
different  from  that  which  they  before  led." — Paley,  Evid. 
eh.  1 .  Here  which  is  the  representative  of  the  whole  of  the 
last  part  of  the  sentence,  and  its  natural  position  is  after  that 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  103 

The  substitute  what  combines  in  itself  the  offices  of  two 
substitutes,  which,  if  expressed,  would  be  the  nominatives  to 
two  verbs,  each  in  distinct  subsequent  clauses;  as,  "  Add  to 
this,  what,  from  its  antiquity  is  but  little  known,  has  the  rec- 
ommendation of  novelty." — Hermes,  pref.  19.  Here  what 
stands  for  that,  which — and  the  two  following  verbs  have  no 
other  nominative. 

This  use  of  what  is  not  very  common.  But  what  is  very 
frequently  used  as  the  representative  of  two  cases — one,  the 
objective  after  a  verb  or  preposition,  and  the  other,  the  nom- 
inative to  a  subsequent  verb.  Examples  : 

"  I  heard  what  was  said."     "  He  related  what  was  seen." 

"  We  do  not  so  constantly  love  what  has  done  us  good." 

Locke,  2.  20.  14. 

"  Agreeable  to  what  was  afterwards  directed." 

Bl  Com.  b.  2.  cli.  3. 

"  Agreeable  to  what  hath  been  mentioned." 

Prideaux,  p.  2,  6,  3. 

"  There  is  something  so  overruling  in  whatever  inspires 
us  with  awe." — Burke  on  the  Sublime,  304.  In  these  sen- 
tences what  includes  an  object  after  a  verb  or  preposition, 
and  a  nominative  to  the  following  verb.  "  I  have  heard  that, 
ivhich  was  said."- 

RULE  XII. 

When  a  new  clause  is  introduced  into  a  sentence  with  two 
pronouns,  or  with  one  pronoun  and  a  name,  one  of  them  is 
the  nominative  to  the  verb,  and  the  other  is  governed  by  the 
verb  or  a  preposition  in  the  objective  case>  or  by  a  noun  in 
the  possessive ;  as,  "  Locke,  whom  there  is  no  reason  to 
suspect  of  favoring  idleness,  has  advanced." — Ramb.  89. 
Here  reason  is  the  nominative  to  is,,  and  whom  is  governed 
by  suspect. 

"  Take  thy  only  son  Isaac,  whom  thou  lovest." — Gen.  22. 
Here  are  two  substitutes,  one  the  nominative  to  the  verb, 
and  the  other  governed  by  it  in  the  objective. 

"  God  is  the  Sovereign  of  the  universe,  whose  majesty 
ought  to  fill  us  with  awe,  to  whom  we  owe  all  possible  rever- 
ence, and  whom  we  are  bound  to  obey." 

It  is  not  unusual  to  see  in  periods,  a  third  clause  introduced 
within  a  second,  as  a  second  is  within  the  first^each  with 


104  AN   IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

a  distinct  substitute  for  a  nominative  ;  as,  "  Those  modifica- 
tions of  any  simple  idea,  which,  as  has  been  said,  I  call  sim- 
ple modes,  are  distinct  ideas." — Locke,  2.  13. 

Involution  to  this  extent  may  be  used  with  caution,  with- 
out embarrassing  a  period  ;  but  beyond  this,  if  ever  used,  it 
can  hardly  fail  to  occasion  obscurity.  Indeed  the  third  mem- 
ber included  in  a  second,  must  be  very  short,  or  it  will  per- 
plex the  reader. 

Substitutes  are  sometimes  made  to  precede  their  princi- 
pals ;  thus,  "  When  a  man  declares  in  autumn,  when  he  is 
eating  them,  or  in  spring,  when  there  are  none,  that  he  loves 
grapes." — Locke,  2.  20.  But  this  arrangement  is  usually 
awkward  and  seldom  allowable. 

RULE  XIII. 

When  there  are  antecedents  in  different  persons,  to  which 
a  nominative  pronoun  refers,  the  pronoun  and  verb  follow- 
ing may  agree  with  either,  though  usage  may  sometimes 
offer  a  preference  ;  as,  "  I  am  the  Lord  that  make  all  things  ; 
that  stretch  forth  the  heavens  alone  ;  that  spread  abroad  the 
earth/'  &c. — Isa.  44.  Here  /  and  Lord  are  of  different  per- 
sons, and  that  may  agree  with  either.  If  it  agrees  with  J, 
the  verbs  must  be  in  the  first  person ;  "  I  am  the  Lord  that 
make"  If  that  agrees  with  Lord  in  the  third  person,  the 
verb  must  be  in  the  third  person  ;  "I  am  the  Lord  that 
maketh."  But  in  all  cases  the  following  verbs  should  all  be 
of  the  same  person. 

RULE   XIV. 

The  definitive  adjectives,  this  and  that,  the  only  attributes 
which  are  varied  to  express  number,  must  agree  in  number 
with  the  names  to  which  they  refer ;  as,  this  city,  that  church  ; 
these  cities,  those  churches. 

This  and  that  are  often  used  as  substitutes  for  a  name  in 
the  singular  number,  which  is  omitted  ;  but  the  same  name 
in  the  plural  immediately  follows  after  a  connective ;  as  in 
this  example,  "  The  mortality  produced  by  this  and  other 
diseases" — Life  of  Washington,  3,  6.  That  is,  by  this  dis- 
ease and  other  diseases.  The  sentence  may  be  varied  thus — 
by  this  disease  and  others — but  the  first  form  is  the  most  com- 
mon, and  it  occasions  no  obscurity. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  105 

Other  adjectives  and  participles,  used  as  adjectives,  are 
joined  to  the  names  which  they  qualify  without  inflection  ; 
as,  a  wise  man,  wise  men ;  an  amiable  child,  or  amiable  chil- 
'dren ;  a  received  truth,  or  received  truths  ;  a  shining  charac- 
ter, or  shining  characters. 

Adjectives  are  often  used  as  substitutes  for  the  names  of 
men  and  things  which  they  describe  by  their  qualities  ;  as, 
few  were  present ;  the  wise  are  respected  ;  the  bravest  are 
not  always  victorious. 

In  this  character,  attributes  take  a  plural  form,  and  are 
qualified  by  other  attributes  ;  as,  the  goods  of  fortune,  two 
jinites  or  infinites,  universals,  generals — the  chief  good,  a 
happy  few ;  "the  extraordinary  great" — Burke  on  the  Sub- 
lime, 304.  "The  blue  prof ound." — AJcenside. 

When  nouns  are  joined  by  a  copulative,  an  adjective  pre- 
ceding the  first,  is  applied  to  the  others  without  being  repeat- 
ed ;  as,  "  From  great  luxury  and  licentiousness" — here  great 
belongs  to  licentiousness  as  well  as  to  luxury.  "  Converted 
to  strict  sobriety  and  frugality  of  manners." — Enfield. 

When  a  period  of  time  is  described  by  its  component  parts 
or  portions,  specified  by  plural  names,  an  attribute  in  the  sin- 
gular number,  or  denoting  unity,  is  often  joined  to  the  plural 
names  of  the  parts ;  as,  "  I  have  not  been  to  London  this  jive 
years;"  "an  election  regularly  takes  place  every  seven 
years;"  that  is,  in  every  single  period  or  term  of  seven 
years. 

This  idiom  is  explainable  on  very  natural  principles.  The 
whole  portion  of  time  has  no  name,  and  we  are  therefore 
obliged  to  express  our  idea  of  it  by  something  equivalent, 
which,  in  this  instance,  are  the  parts  Jive  and  seven  years. 
The  mind  is  fixed  upon  the  entire  period,  and  while  the  lips 
utter  the  name  of  the  parts,  the  mind  naturally  considers  the 
whole  as  a  unity,  and  overlooking  the  several  portions,  at- 
taches the  attribute  to  that  unity  or  whole  period.  Hence 
originated  the  customary  abbreviation  of  twelve  months,  into 
a  twelvemonth  ;  seven  nights  into  se'night ;  fourteen  nights 
into  &  fortnight ;  and  hence  dozen,  hundred,  &c.  admit  the 
definitive  a. 

To  the  same  cause  probably  may  be  ascribed  the  common 
phrases,  twenty  pound,  thirty  foot,  and  others  similar  ;  in 
which  a  whole  quantity  or  space,  for  which  we  have  no  ap- 
propriate name,  is  described  by  smaller  portions  equivalent. 
The  idea  of  unity,  in  all  such  cases,  being  predominant,  anc{ 

/        .rf 


166  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

the  only  one  which  the  speaker  wishes  to  communicate,  is 
very  apt  to  control  the  language,  and  occasion  the  omission 
of  the  sign  of  the  plural  even  when  it  is  necessary  to  the 
very  purpose  intended. 

Hence  we  learn  the  cause  why  enumeration  and  addition 
of  numbers  are  usually  expressed  in  the  singular  number  ; 
two  and  two  is  four ;  seven  and  nine  is  sixteen ;  that  is,  the 
sum  of  seven  and  nine  is  sixteen.  But  modern  usage  in- 
clines to  reject  the  use  of  the  verb  in  the  singular  number, 
in  these  and  similar  phrases. 

RULE   XV. 

Adjectives  are  usually  placed  before  the  nouns  to  which 
they  belong  ;  as,  a  wise  prince  ;  an  obedient  subject ;  a  pious 
clergyman,  a  brave  soldier. 

Exception  1.  When  some  word  or  words  are  dependent 
on  an  attribute,  it  follows  the  name  ;  as,  knowledge  requi- 
site for  a  statesman  ;  furniture  convenient  for  a  family. 

Exception  2.  When  an  attribute  becomes  a  title,  or  is 
emphatically  applied  to  a  name,  it  follows  it;  as,  Charles,  the 
Great;  Henry,  the  First;  Lewis,  the  Gross;  Wisdom  in- 
comprehensible. 

Exception  3.  Several  attributes  belonging  to  the  same 
name,  may  precede  or  follow  the  name  to  which  they  be- 
long ;  as,  a  learned,  wise  and  martial  prince,  or  a  prince 
learned,  wise  and  martial. 

Exception  4.  The  verb  be  often  separates  the  name  from 
its  attribute  ;  as,  war  is  expensive ;  gaming  is  ruinous. 

Exception  5.  An  emphatical  attribute  is  often  used  to  in- 
troduce a  sentence,  in  which  case  it  precedes  the  name  which 
it  qualifies,  and  sometimes  at  a  considerable  distance  ;  as, 
"  Great  is  the  Lord  ;"  auspicious  will-  be  that  event ;  fortu- 
nate is  that  young  man  who  escapes  the  snares  of  vice. 

Exception  6.  The  attribute  all  may  be  separated  from  its 
noun  by  the,  which  never  precedes  it  in  construction ;  as, 
"  all  the  nations  of  Europe."  Such  and  many  are  separated 
from  names  by  a;  as,  "  such  a  character  is  rare;"  "many  a 
time." 

All  adjectives  are  separated  from  names  by  a  when  pre- 
ceded by  so  and  as — so  rich  a  dress — as  splendid  a  retinue ; 
and  they  are  separated  by  a  or  the,  when  preceded  by  how 


«OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  107 

and  however ;  as,  "  how  distinguished  an  act  of  bravery," — 
"  how  brilliant  the  prize."  "  However  just  the  complaint ;" 
and  by  too ;  as,  too  costly  a  sacrifice. 

The  word  soever  may  be  interposed  between  the  attribute 
and  the  name ;  "  how  clear  soever  this  idea  of  infinity" — 
"  how  remote  soever  it  may  seem." — Locke. 

Double  is  separated  from  its  noun  by  the;  as  "  double  the 
distance," — the,  in  such  cases,  never  preceding  double.  But 
a  precedes  double,  as  well  as  other  attributes. 

All  and  singular  or  every  precede  the  before  the  name 
in  these  phrases.  "  All  and  singular  the  articles,  clauses  and 
conditions."  "  All  and  every  of  the  articles" — phrases  of 
the  law  style. 

RULE    XVI. 

Adjectives  belong  to  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mode  ;  as,  "  to 
see  is  pleasant," — "  to  ride  is  more  agreeable  than  to  walk  ;" 
"  to  calumniate  is  detestable." 

Sometimes  the  attribute  belongs  to  the  infinitive  in  union 
with  another  attribute  or  a  name ;  as,  "  to  be  blind  is  unfor- 
tunate ;"  "  to  be  a  coward  is  disgraceful."  Here  the  attri- 
bute unfortunate  is  the  attribute  of  the  first  clause,  to  be 
blind,  &/c. 

RULE  XVII. 

Adjectives  belong  to  sentences,  or  whole  propositions : 
Examples  : 

"  Agreeable  to  this,  we  read  of  names  being  blotted  out 
of  God's  book" — Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  375. 

What  is  agreeable  to  this!  The  answer  is  found  in  the 
whole  of  the  last  clause  of  the  sentence. 

"Antiochus — to  verify  the  character  prophetically  given 
of  him  by  Daniel — acted  the  part  of  a  vile  and  most  detesta- 
ble person,  agreeable  to  what  hath  been  aforementioned  of 
him." — Prideaux,  part  2,  6.  3. 

"  Her  majesty  signified  her  pleasure  to  the  admiral  that 
as  soon  as  he  had  left  a  squadron  for  Dunkirk,  agreeable  to 
what  he  had  proposed,  he  should  proceed  with  the  fleet." — 
Burchet,  Nav.  Hist.  439. 

"  Independent  of  his  person,  his  nobility,  his  dignity,  his 
relations  and  friends  may  be  urged,"  &/c. — Crutkrie's  Quinc- 
tilian. 


108  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR    « 

"  No  body  can  doubt  but  that  these  ideas  of  mixed  modes 
are  made  by  a  voluntary  collection  of  ideas  put  together  in 
the  mind,  independent  from  any  original  patterns  in  nature." 
— Locke,  3,  5. 

"  Whereupon  God  was  provoked  to  anger,  and  put  them 
in  mind  how,  contrary  to  his  directions,  they  had  spared  the 
Canaanites" — Whiston's  Josepkus,  b.  5,  ch.  2. 

"  Greece,  which  had  submitted  to  the  arms,  in  her  turn, 
subdued  the  understandings  of  the  Romans,  and  contrary  to 
that  which  in  these  cases  commonly  happens,  the  conquerors 
adopted  the  opinions  and  manners  of  the  conquered." — En- 
Jield,  Hist.  Phil.  b.  3,  1. 

"  This  letter  of  Pope  Innocent  enjoined  the  payment  of 
tithes  to  the  parsons  of  the  respective  parishes,  where  any 
man  inhabited,  agreeable  to  what  was  afterwards  directed 
by  the  same  Pope  in  other  countries." — Blacks.  Comment, 
b.  2,  ch.  3. 

"  Agreeable  to  this,  we  find  some  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  la- 
dies were  admitted  into  their  most  august  assemblies" — 
Henry,  Hist.  Brit.  b.  %,  ch.  7,  and  b.  4,  ch.  1,  sec.  4. 

"  As  all  language  is  composed  of  significant  words  vari- 
ously combined,  a  knowledge  of  them  is  necessary,  previous 
to  our  acquiring  an  adequate  idea  of  language." — Encyclop. 
art.  Grammar. 

"  His  empire  could  not  be  established,  previous  to  the  in- 
stitution of  pretty  numerous  societies." — Smdlie,  Ph.  Nat. 
Hist.  339. 

"Suitable  to  this,  we  find  that  men,  speaking  of  mixed 
modes,  seldom  imagine,"  &c. — Locke,  3,  5,  11. 

"  No  such  original  convention  of  the  people  was  ever 
actually  held,  antecedent  to  the  existence  of  civil  govern- 
ment in  that  country ." — Pal  Phil  b.  6,  ch.  3. 

NOTE. — Writers  and  critics,  misapprehending  the  true  construction 
of  these  and  similar  sentences,  have  supposed  the  attribute  to  belong  to 
the  verb,  denoting  the  manner  of  action.  But  a  little  attention  to  the 
sense  of  such  passages  will  be  sufficient  to  detect  the  mistake.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  example  from  Enneld,  the  attribute  contrary  cannot  qual- 
ify the  verb  adopted  ;  for  the  conquerors  did  not  adopt  the  opinions  of 
the  conquered  in  a  manner  contrary  to  what  usually  happens — trie 
manner  of  the  act  is  not  the  thing  affirmed,  nor  does  it  come  into  con- 
sideration. The  sense  is  this,  the  fact,  that  the  conquerors  adopted  the 
opinions  and  manners  of  the  conquered,  was  contrary  to  what  com- 
monly happens  in  like  cases.  The  attribute  belongs  to  the  whole  sen- 
tence or  proposition.  The  same  explanation  is  applicable  to  every  sim- 
ilar sentence. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.        .    109 

In  consequence  of  not  attending  to  this  construction,  our  hypercritics, 
who  are  very  apt  to  distrust  popular  practice,  and  substitute  their  own 
rules  for  customary  idioms,  founded  on  common  sense,  have  condemned 
this  use  of  the  attribute,  and  authors,  suffering  themselves  to  be  led 
astray  by  these  rules,  often  use  an  adverb  in  the  place  of  an  adjective. 

"  The  greater  part  of  philosophers  have  acknowledged  the  excellence 
of  this  government,  which  they  have  considered,  some  relatively  to 
society,  and  others  as  it  has  relation  to  the  general  system  of  nature." 
Anach.  ch.  62. 

"  The  perceptions  are  exalted  into  a  source  of  exquisite  pleasure  in- 
dependently of  every  particular  relation  of  interest." 

Studies  of  Nature,  12. 

In  the  first  of  these  examples,  relatively  is  used  very  awkwardly  for 
as  relative,  or  as  relating,  or  as  it  relates,  or  'in  relation;  for  the  word 
has  a  direct  reference  to  government. 

In  the  second  example,  independently  is  used  as  if  it  had  been  in- 
tended to  modify  the  verb  exalt — the  perceptions  are  independently  ex- 
alted. But  the  manner  of  exalting  is  not  the  thing  described.  It  is 
not  that  the  perceptions  are  exalted  in  an  independent  manner,  nor  in  a 
manner  independent  of  a  relation  to  interest :  but  the  fact,  that  the  per- 
ceptions are  exalted  into  a  source  of  exquisite  pleasure,  is  independent 
of  every  relation  of  interest.  Equally  faulty  is  the  following  sentence  : 

"  Agreeably  to  this  law,  children  are  bound  to  support  their  parents.' 

Paley,  Phil. 

Johnson,  in  his  life  of  Thomson,  has  this  sentence — "  Why  the  dedica- 
tions are  to  winter  and  the  other  seasons,  contrar'dy  to  custom,  left  out 
in  the  collected  works,  the  reader  may  imagine."  It  is  strange  that  a 
man  of  this  author's  discernment  should  not  perceive  that  it  was  not  the 
manner  of  leaving  out,  which  he  was  stating,  but  the  fact — The  dedica- 
tions to  winter  and  other  seasons  are  left  out,  which  fact  or  thing  is  con- 
trary to  custom.*  I  do  not  recollect  this  use  of  contrary  in  any  other 
passage ;  though  it  is  certainly  as  vindicable  as  the  use  of  any  other 
modifier  under  like  circumstances  ;  for  in  every  case  it  entirely  perverts 
the  sense  of  the  passage.  In  this  instance,  the  use  of  the  adverb  in- 
stead of  the  attribute,  may  have  been  an  oversight. 

In  this  kind  of  phrase,  I  have  even  seen  an  instance  of  the  participle 
according  converted  into  accordingly.  See  this  word  explained  in  the 
sequel.  I  have  not  seen  priorly  used  for  prior,  in  'like  sentences — 
<;  Priorly  to  his  arrival  in  England" — Nor  anteriorly,  posteriorly, 
exteriorly,  infer  iorly,  nor  adjacently  or  contiguously  to  the  river; 
and  the  like  barbarisms ;  but  subsequently,  antecedently,  consistently, 
conformably,  are  frequent  in  our  best  authors.  "  To  do  what  we  will, 
consistently  with  the  interests  of  the  community,  is  civil  liberty."  Pa- 
ley,  Phil.  6.  5.  This  is  not  English  ;  for  it  is  not  the  manner  of  doing, 
but  the  thing  done,  which  must  be  consistent  with  the  public  interest. 
A  misapprehension  of  the  true  import  and  construction  of  such  passages, 
has  done  immense  mischief  to  the  language. 

*  The  idiom  in  question  has  resulted  from  that  disposition  to  abridge 
the  number  of  words  used  in  communicating  ideas,  which  I  have  re- 
peatedly mentioned ;  the  effects  of  which  are  among  the  prime  excel- 
lencies of  every  language. 

10 


110  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

In  the  place  of  this  awkward  phrase,  in  which  an  adverb  is  made  to 
precede  to,  I  would  use  a  noun  with  a  preposition.  Instead  of  "  In  con- 
sidering sound  relatively  to  its  external  cause" — I  would  Use  in  relation 
— "  In  considering  sound  in  relation  to  its  external  cause."  "  This  was 
one  in  conformity  with"  not  conformably  to.  He  could  not  in  consis- 
tency with,  not  consistently  with.  In  agreement  or  ficcor dance  with; 
not  agreeably  to. 

These  forms  of  expressions  are  genuine  and  more  elegant  and  correct 
English;  but  in  most  instances,  the  ^adjectives,  relative,  conformable, 
consistent,  agreeable,  referring  to  a  clause*  in  the  sentence,  would  be 
equally  correct. 

RULE*  XVIII. 

Adjectives  are  used  to  modify  the  action  of  verbs,  and  tp 
express  the  qualities  of  things  in  connection  with  the  action 
by  which  they  are  produced.  Examples  : 

"  Open  thine  hand  wide. — Deut.  15.  17. 

We  observe  in  this  passage,  that  wide,  the  attribute  of 
hand,  has  a  connection  with  the  verb  open ;  for  it  is  not 
"  open  thy  wide  hand;"  but  the  attribute  is  supposed  to  be 
the  effect  of  the  act  of  opening.  Nor  can  the  modifier, 
widely,  be  used  ;  for  it  is  not  simply  the  manner  of  the  act 
which  is  intended ;  but  the  effect. 

"  Let  us  write  slow  and  exact." — Guthrie,  Quinct.  2.  375. 

We  might  perhaps  substitute  slowly  for  slow,  as  describ- 
ing only  the  manner  of  writing ;  but  exactly  cannot  be 
substituted  for  exact;  for  this  word  is  intended  to  denote 
the  effect  of  writing,  in  the  correctness  of  what  is  written. 
The  attribute  expresses  the  idea  with  a  happy  precision  and 
brevity. 

As  this  is  one  of  the  most  common,  as  well  as  most 
beautiful  idioms  of  our  language,  which  has  hitherto  escaped 
due  observation,  the  following  authorities  are  subjoined  to 
illustrate  and  justify  the  rule. 

"We  could  hear  distinctly  tbe  bells — which  sounded 
sweetly  soft  and  pensive" — Chandler's  Travels,  ch.%. 

"  A  southerly  wind  succeeded  blowing  fresh." — Tb.  v.  2.  3. 

"  His  provisions  were  grown  very  short" 

Burchet's  Nav.  Hist.  357. 

"  When  the  caloric  exists  ready  combined  with  the  water 
of  solution." — Lavoisier.  Trans,  ch.  5. 

"  The  purest  clay  is  that  which  burns  white." 

Encyc.  art  Chimistry. 

"  Bray,  to  pound  or  grind  small." — Johnson's  Diet. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  Ill 

"  When  death  lays  waste  thy  house." — Beattie's  Mins. 

"  All  which  looks  very  little  like  the  steady  hand  of 
nature." — Pal.  Phil.  ch.  5. 

"  Magnesia  feels  smooth  ;  calcaripus  earths  feel  dry ;  litho- 
marga  feels  very  greasy,  or  at  least  smooth;  yet  some  feel 
dry  and  dusty." — Kirwan.  vol.  1,  12.  189. 

"  By  this  substance,  crystals  and  glasses  are  colored 
Hue" — Chaptal,  Trans.  299. 

"  There  is  an  apple  described  in  Bradley's  work,  which 
is  said  to  have  one  side  of  it  a  sweet  fruit,  which  boils  soft ; 
and  the  other  side,  a  sour  fruit,  which  boils  hard." 

Darwin,  Phytol.  105. 

"  Drink  deep  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring." — Pope. 

"  Heaven  opened  wide  her  ever  during  gates." 

Milton,  P:L.  7. 

"  The  victory  of  the  ministry  cost  them  dear" 

Hume,  Contin.  11.9. 

"  And  just  as  short  of  reason  he  must  fall." — Pope. 

"  Thick  and  more  thick  the  steely  circle  grows." 

Hook's  Tasso,  b.  S. 

"  Ancus  marched  strait  to  fidenae." — Hook.  Rom.  Hist.  1. 6. 

"  The  cakes  eat  short  and  crisp." — Vicar  of  Wakejield. 

"  A  steep  ascent  of  steps  which  were  cut  close  and  deep 
into  the  rocks." — Hampton's  Polybius,  2,  65. 

"  It  makes  the  plow  go  deep  or  shallow" — Enc.  art.  Agri. 

"  The  king's  ships  were  getting  ready." — Lusiad,  1.  91. 

"  After  growing  old  in  attendance." — Spect.  No.  282. 

"  The  sun  shineth  watery."— Bacon,  Apoph. 

"  Soft  sighed  the  flute." — Thomson,  Spring. 

"  I  made  him  just  and  right." — Milton,  3.  98. 

"  He  drew  not  nigh  unheard." — Ibm.  645. 

"  When  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable  is  pronounced 
short" — Murray's  Grammar. 

"  Here  grass  is  cut  close  and  gravel  rolled  smooth.  Is 
not  that  trim  1" — Bo  swell,  Johnson,  3. 

"Slow  tolls  the  village  clock — deep  mourns  the  turtle." 

Beattie's  Minstrel 

"  If  you  would  try  to  live  independent." — Pope,  Let. 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  He  obliged  the  Nile  to  run  bloody  for  your  sakes."* — 
W/iiston's  Josephus,  3.  5. 

"  Correct  the  heart  and  all  will  go  right" — Porteus 
Lect.  3. 

The  poets  sometimes  use  adjectives  in  this  manner,  when 
modifiers  would  express  the  idea.  Sometimes  they  are  in- 
duced to  it  by  the  measure;  and  not  unfrequently  by  the 
obvious  superiority  of  the  attribute  in  expressing  the  idea 
with  force  and  precision. 

When  two  qualifying  words  are  wanted,  the  latter  may 
be  an  adjective,  though  applied  to  a  verb  ;  as,  "  He  beat  time 
tolerably  exact." — Golds.  An.  Nat.  ch.  12. 

"  The  air  will  be  found  diminished  in  weight  exactly  equal 
to  what  the  iron  has  gained." — Lavoisier,  ch.  3. 

"  Horses  are  sold  extremely  dear." — Golds. 

"  And  greatly  independent  lived.'1 — Thorn.  Spring. 

"This  was  applying  a  just  principle  very  ill." — VatteL 
Trans.  2.  7. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  we  have  no  adverbial  form  of  the 
attribute  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees,  except 
that  of  more  and  most,  less  and  least,  prefixed.  But  we  use 
the  adjectives  with  the  regular  terminations,  in  these  degrees, 
to  qualify  verbs.  Examples  : — 

"  To  hands  that  longer  shall  the  weapon  wield." 

Hoole,  Tas.  7. 

"  Then  the  pleasing  force 

Of  nature  and  her  kind  parental  care, 

Worthier  I'd  sing."  Akenside,  PI.  of  Im.  1.  323. 

"  So  while  we  taste  the  fragrance  of  the  rose, 

Glows  not  her  blush  the  fairer?"  Ibm.  2.  77. 

•"  When  we  know  our  strength,  we  shall  the  better  know 
what  to  undertake  with  hopes  of  success." — Locke,  1.  6. 

"And  he  that  can  most  inform  or  best  understand  him, 
will  certainly  be  welcomed." — Rambler,  No.  99. 
"  How  much  nearer  he  approaches  to  his  end." 
"I  have  dwelt  the  longer  on  the  discussion  of  this  point." 

Junius,  Let.  17. 

*  "  Cruentam  etiam  fluxisse  aquam  Albanam,  quidam  auctores  erant." 
— Liv.  lib.  27.  II.  Some  authors  related  that  the  Alban  river  ran 
Moody. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  113 

"  The  next  contains  a  spirited  command,  and  should  be 
pronounced  much  higher" — Murray's  Grammar.* 

"  Leviathan,  which  God  of  all  his  works 
Created  hugest  that  swim  th'  ocean's  stream." 

Milton,  1.  201. 

"  But  mercy  first  and  last  shall  brightest  shine." — Ib.  3. 134. 

"  Such  opinions  as  seemed  to  approach  nearest  [to]  the 
truth."— Enfield.  Hist.  Phil  2.  59. 

"  Her  smiles,  amid  the  blushes,  lovelier  show ; 
Amid  her  smiles,  her  blushes  lovelier  glow." 

Hook.  Tasso.  b.  15. 

Authors,  misguided  by  Latin  rules,  and  conceiving  that 
every  word  which  is  used  to  qualify  a  verb,  must  be  an  ad- 
verb, have  pronounced  many  of  the  passages  here  recited 
and  similar  ones  to  be  incorrect — and  in  such  as  are  too  well 
established  to  bear  censure,  they  call  the  adjective  an  ad- 
verb. Were  it  not  for  this  influence  in  early  education, 
which  impresses  a  notion  that  all  languages  must  be  formed 
with  the  like  idioms,  we  should  never  have  received  an  idea 
that  the  same  word  may  not  modify  a  noun,  an  adjective  and 
a  verb. 

So  far  are  the  words  here  used  from  being  adverbs,  that 
they  cannot  be  changed  into  adverbs,  without  impairing  the 
beauty,  weakening  the  force  or  destroying  the  meaning  of 
the  passages.  Let  the  sentences  be  put  to  the  test — Magne^ 
sia  feels  smoothly — the  cakes  eat  shortly  and  crisply — the 
apples  boil  softly  or  hardly — glows  not  her  blush  the  more 
fairly.  Every  English  ear  rejects  this  alteration  at  once — the 
sentences  become  nonsense.  Nor  can  the  attribute  be  sep- 
arated from  the  verb — "  Amid  her  smiles,  her  blushes,  be- 
ing lovelier,  glow" — this  is  not  the  sense — nor  will  it  an-, 
swer  to  say,  4<  her  lovelier  blushes  glow" — this  is  not  the 
idea.  The  sense  is,  that  the  attribute  expressed  by  lovelier, 
is  not  only  a  quality  of  blushes,  but  a  quality  derived,  in  a 
degree,  from  the  action  of  the  verb,  glow. 

Thus,  clay  burns  white — objects  may  be  seen  double — 
may  rise  high — fall  low — grow  strait,  or  thick,  or  thin,  or 

*  In  remarking  upon  such  phrases  as  "The  vices  which  enter  deeper 
or  deepest  into  the  soul,"  Murray  says,  deeper  and  deepest  should  be 
more  deeply,  most  deeply.  It  is  recommended  to  change  the  adjective 
in  the  two  passages  I  have  cited — "The  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable 
is  pronounced  shortly11 — "  The  next  should  be  pronounced  muca 
highly .'"  This  alteration  will  put  his  rule  to  the  test 


114  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

fat,  or  lean — one  may  speak  loud — the  sun  shines  clear — 
ihejiner  a  substance  is  pulverized — to  grow  wiser,  to  plunge 
'deeper,  spread  wider — and  similar  expressions  without  num- 
ber, constitute  a  well  established  idiom,  as  common  as  it  is 
elegant* 

The  attributes  thus  connected  with  verbs  may  easily  be 
distinguished  from  those  which  merely  qualify  names,  the 
latter  being  separable  from  the  verb.  Thus, 

(t  Our  great  enemy 

All  uncorruptible,  would,  on  his  throne, 
Sit  unpolluted."  Milton,  P.  L.  2 

Here  unpolluted  has  no  effect  at  all  upon  the  verb ;  but 
may  be  separated  from  it,  and  carried  into  the  first  line  with- 
out altering  the  sense. 

"  And  the  birds  sing  concealed"      Thomson. 

"He  roved  uncertain  through  the  dusky  shade.'* — Hook. 

RULE  XIX. 

Some  adjectives  are  used  to  modify  the  sense  of  others 
and  of  participles;  as  a  very  clear  day,  red  hot  iron,  a  more 
or  most  excellent  character.  "  Without  coming  any  near- 
er."— Locke;  more  pressing  necessity,  most  grating  sound, 
u  a  closer  grained  wood." — Lavoisier.  Trans. 

<(>  Full  many  a  gem  with  purest  ray  serene." — Gray. 

"  Some  deemed  him  ivondrous  wise." — Beattie's  Minstrel. 

*  The  Roman  writers  availed  themselves  of  the  same  idiom. — "  Ob 
multitudinem  familiarum,  quee  gliscebat  immensum" 

Tacitus.  An.  lib.  4.  27. 

"  Fabius — Arpos  primum  institit  oppugnare — quaa  maxime  neglectam 
custodiam  vidit,  ea  potissimum  adgredi  statuit" — Liv.  lib.  24.  46. 

How  much  more  impressive  is  the  description  which  Tacitus  here 
gives  of  an  alarming  insurrection  of  slaves,  than  if  he  had  used  the  ad- 
verb !  "  A  multitude  of  slaves  which  was  increasing  and  growing  im- 
mense !"  this  is  giving  to*prose  the  rhetorical  sublimity  of  verse.  It  is 
giving  the  verb  its  full  effect,  and  at  the  same  time,  attaching  the  attri- 
bute to  that  effect. 

In  the  word  potissimum,  in  Livy,  as  in  many  others,  we  see  the  effect 
of  not  understanding  this  elegant  use  of  attributes.  Such  words  are 
marked  in  dictionaries  as  adverbs  !  How  would  Tully,  Livy  and  Taci- 
tus smile  to  see  their  native  tongue,  disfigured  with  accents  to  distin 
fuish  adverbs  from  adjectives,  in  a  modern  dictionary  of  the  language  ! 
t  is  a  just  remark  of  Mr.  Tooke,  that  all  words  which  critics  have  not 
understood,  they  have  thrown  into  the  common  sink  of  adverbs. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  115 

In  these  expressions  the  last  attribute  belongs  more  im- 
mediately to  the  noun  expressing  its  quality — and  the  Jirst 
attribute  qualifies  the  second. 

Not  un frequently  two  attributes  are  used  to  modify  a 
third,  or  the  principal  one;  as,  "  The  manner  in  which  ex- 
ternal force  acts  upon  the  body  is  very  little  subject  to  the 
will."— Rambler,  No.  78. 

RULE  XX. 

Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  sense  of  adverbs ;  as,  a 
city  was  very  bravely  defended  ;  the  soldiers  were  most  am- 
ply rewarded ;  a  donation  more  beneficially  bestowed ;  a, 
house  less  elegantly  furnished ;  a  man  the  least  peaceably 
disposed. 

In  these  phrases,  the  modifier  attends  the  verb  or  partici- 
ple to  mark  the  manner  or  character  of  the  act  or  affirma- 
tion ;  and  the  attribute  attends  the  modifier  to  mark  the  de- 
gree or  extent  of  that  manner  of  character. 

For  a  like  purpose  of  defining  the  degrees  of  quality  and 
modification,  we  make  great  use  of  much  before  attributes 
of  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees ;  as,  a  prince 
much  more  humanely  disposed ;  or  much  less  martially  in- 
clined. 

We  have  a  few  other  words  which  are  often  used  to  mod- 
ify attributes  as  well  as  verbs — as,  a  little,  a  great  deal,  a 
trifle.  "  Many  letters  from  persons  of  the  best  sense — do 
not  a  little  encourage  me." — Spectator,  124.  "  It  is  a  great 
deal  better ;"  "a  trifle  stronger;"  the  last  of  which  expres- 
sions is  colloquial. 

RULE  XXI. 

The  adjectives  each,  every,  either  and  neither,  have  verbs 
and  substitutes  agreeing  with  them  in  the  singular  number ; 
as, 

"  Each  one  was  a  head  of  the  house  of  his  fathers." 

Josh.  22.  14. 

"  Every  one  that  Jindeth  me,  shall  slay  me." — Gen.  4.  14. 
"  And  take  every  man  his  censer." — Num.  16.  17. 

"  Nadab  and  Abihu  took  either  of  them  his  censer." 

Lev.  10.  1. 


116  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

"  Neither  of  the  ways  of  separation,  real  or  mental,  is  com- 
patible to  pure  space."  —  Locke,  2.  13. 

Errors.  —  "  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  them- 
selves." It  ought  to  be  himself. 

"  There  are  bodies,  each  of  which  are  so  small."  It  ought 
to  be  is.  —  Locke,  2.  8. 

NOTE.  —  A  plural  verb,  which  affirms  something  of  a  number  of  par- 
ticulars, is  often  followed  by  a  distributive  which  assigns  the  affirmation 
to  the  particular  objects  or  individuals.  Thus,  "  If  metals  have,  each  a 
peculiar  earth"  —  Hence  we  may  consider  each  as  the  nominative  to  has 
understood  —  "  If  metals  have,  if  each  metal  has  a  peculiar  earth."  There 
is  no  other  way  of  resolving  the  phrase.  This  manner  of  expression  is 
common,  though  quite  useless—  as  the  last  clause,  "  if  each  metal  has" 
—  is  sufficient.  It  has  not  the  merit  of  an  abbreviation.  This  phrase, 
"  Let  us  love  one  another,"  is  of  a  similar  construction,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  find  a  substitute  of  equal  brevity. 

RULE    XXII. 

Names  of  measure  or  dimension  stand  without  a  govern- 
ing word,  followed  by  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  a  wall  seven  feet 
high  and  two  feet  thick"  —  "  a  carpet  six  yards  wide"  —  "  a 
line  sixty  fathoms  long"  —  "  a  kingdom  five  hundred  miles 
square"  —  "  water  ten  feet  deep." 

"  An  army  forty  thousand  strong,"  is  a  similar  phrase. 


E.  —  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives,  most  straitest,  most 
highest,  being  improper  and  useless,  are  not  to  be  used.  The  few  which 
were  formerly  used  are  obsolete.  Worser,  a  mistake  in  spelling  wyrsa, 
is  obsolete  ;  but  lesser,  a  mistake  for  lessa,  is  still  used,  as  well  as  its  ab- 
breviation, less.  We  never  say,  the  less  Asia,  but  lesser. 

The  superlative  form  of  certain  adjectives,  which,  in  the  positive  de- 
gree, contain  the  utmost  degree  of  the  quality,  as  extremest,  chief  est,  is 
improper  and  obsolete.  But  authors  indulge  in  a  most  unwarrantabe 
license  of  annexing  comparison  to  attributes  whose  negative  sense  pre- 
cludes increase  or  diminution  ;  as  in  these  sentences,  u  These  are  more 
formidable  and  more  impassable  than  the  mountains."  —  Golds.  An.  Nat. 
ch.  2.  "  This  difficulty  was  rendered  still  more  insurmountable  by  the 
licentious  spirit  of  our  young  men."  —  Murphy,  Tacit.  Orat.  35.  "  The 
contradictions  of  impiety  are  still  more  incomprehensible."  —  Massillon, 
Serm.  to  the  Great. 

Similar  to  these  are  numerous  expressions  found  in  good  authors  — 
more  impossible,  more  indispensable,  less  universal,  more  uncontrollable  ; 
and  others,  in  which  the  sign  of  comparison  is  not  only  improper, 
but  it  rather  enfeebles  the  epithet;  for  the  word  itself  expressing  the  full 
extent  of  the  idea,  ought  to  bear  some  emphasis,  which,  if  a  qualifying 
word  is  prefixed,  will  naturally  be  transferred  to  that  word.* 

*  This  effect  may  proceed  also  from  another  consideration.  If  the  at- 
tribute alone  is  used,  its  sense  precludes  the  idea  of  increase  or  diminu- 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  117 

In  a  few  instances,  this  usage  seems  to  be  too  well  established  to  be 
altered,  and  particularly  in  the  use  of  more  and  most,  less  and  least  per- 
fect. In  general,  it  would  indicate  more  precision  of  thought  to  apply 
a  term  of  diminution  to  the  affirmative  attribute — less  possible,  less  sur- 
mountable, less  controllable  ;  rather  than  a  term  of  increase  to  a  negative 
attrioute. 

NOTE  2. — In  English,  two  names  are  frequently  united  to  form  a  new 
name  ;  as,  earth-worm,  drill-plow,  ink-stand,  book-case.  In  some  cases, 
these  compounds  are  by  custom  effectually  blended  into  one  term  ;  in 
other  cases,  they  are  separated  into  their  component  parts  by  a  hyphen  ; 
in  other  cases,  words  are  united,  and  the  first  term  forms  a  sort  of  occa- 
sional attribute  to  the  second  ;  as,  family '-use  or  family-consumption. 

NOTE  3. — From  a  disposition  to  abridge  the  number  of  words  in  dis- 
course, we  find  many  expressions  which  are  not  reducible  to  any  pre- 
cise rule,  formed  at  first  by  accident  or  ellipsis ;  such  are  at  first,  at  last, 
at  best,  at  worst,  at  most,  at  least,  at  farthest,  at  the  utmost.  In  these 
expressions  there  may  have  been  an  ellipsis  of  some  name ;  but  they  are 
well  established,  brief  and  significant. 

NOTE  4. — We  have  certain  attributes  which  follow  a  verb,  and  a  name 
to  which  they  belong,  but  never  precede  the  noun.  Such  are  adry, 
afeared,  afraid,  alone,  alike,  aware,  akin,  alive,  asleep,  awake,  athirst, 
aloft,  aghast,  afloat,  askew,  ashamed,  pursuant,  plenty,  worth ;  to 
which  may  be  added  amiss,  aground,  ashore,  aside,  and  a  few  others 
which  may  be  used  as  attributes  or  modifiers.  We  say,  one  is  adry, 
ashamed,  alive  or  awake.  But  never  an  adry  person,  an  ashamed  child, 
&c.  We  say,"  A  proclamation  was  issued  pursuant  to  advice  of  coun- 
cil." But  we  can  in  no  case  place  pursuant  before  the  noun. 

Plenty,  as  an  attribute,  has  not  yet  been  recognized  by  critics  ;  but 
critics  do  not  make  language,  nor  can  they  reject  what  a  nation  has 
made.  Plenty  is  constantly  used  as  an  adjective  after  a  name  in  collo- 
quial language,  and  is  found  in  our  best  writers ;  to  cavil  at  this  usage, 
therefore,  is  as  idle  as  it  is  impertinent. 

"  The  sea  muscle  is  perhaps  the  most  plenty" — Golds.  An.  Nature. 
tl  Where  shrubs  me  plenty  and  water  scarce." — Ibm.  2.  21. 

"  In  those  provinces  where  wood  was  plenty." 

Rycaut  GarciJlaso,  923. 

"  This  species  is  more  plenty  in  France." — Encyc.,  Art.  Loxia. 
"  Provisions  are  plenty  and  living  cheap." — Ibm.,  Art.  Adrianople. 

Worth  not  only  follows  the  name  which  it  qualifies,  but  is  followed  by 
a  name  denoting  price  or  value  ;  as.  a  book  worth  a  dollar  or  a  guinea — 
it  is  well  icorth  the  money — "  It  is  worth  observation." — Beloe's  Herodo- 
tus. Erato,  98.  If  a  substitute  is  used  after  worth,  it  must  be  in  the 
objective  case.  It  is  icorth  them  or  it. 

But  worthy,  the  derivative  of  worth,  follows  the  usual  construction 
of  attributes,  and  may  precede  the  name  it  qualifies ;  as,  a  worthy  man. 

tioii ;  it  expresses  all  that  can  be  expressed.     But  admit  comparison, 
and  it  ceases  to  express  the  utmost  extent  of  the  quality. 


i!8  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

RULE  XXIII. 

One  name  signifying  the  same  thing  with  another,  or  de- 
scriptive of  it,  may  be  in  apposition  to  it ;  that  is,  may  stand 
in  a  like  character  or  case,  without  an  intervening  verb ;  as, 
Paul,  the  apostle ;  John,  the  baptist ;  Newton,  the  philoso- 
pher ;  Chatham,  the  orator  and  statesman. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  following  sentence,  a  name  in  the  plural  stands  in 
apposition  to  two  names  in  the  singular,  joined  by  an  alternative.  "  The 
terms  of  our  law  will  hardly  find  words  that  answer  them  in  the  Spanish 
or  Italian,  no  scanty  languages"-*— Locke,  3.  5.  8. 

NOTE  2. — Names  are  not  unfrequently  set  in  apposition  to  sentences ; 
as,  "  Whereby  if  a  man  had  a  positive  idea  of  infinite,  either  duration  or 
space,  he  could  add  two  infinites  together;  nay,  make  one  infinite  infi- 
nitely bigger  than  another;  absurdities  too  gross  to  be  confuted." — 
Locke,.  2.  17.  20.  Here  the  absurdities  are  the  whole  preceding  propo- 
sitions. 

'•You  are  too  humane  and  considerate;  things  few  people  can  be 
charged  with." — Pope,  Let.  Here  things  are  in  apposition  to  humane 
and  considerate.  Such  a  construction  may  be  justified,  when  the  ideas 
are  correct,  but  it  is  not  very  uncommon. 

"  The  Dutch  were  formerly  in  possession  of  the  coasting  trade  and 
freight  of  almost  all  other  trading  nations ;  they  were  also  the  bankers 
for  all  Europe  ;  advantages  by  which  they  have  gained  immense  sums." 
Zimmerman's  Survey,  170.  Here  advantages  is  put  in  apposition  to  the 
two  first  members  of  the  sentence. 

RULE  XXIV. 

When  two  names  are  used,  one  denoting  the  possessor, 
the  other  the  thing  possessed,  the  name  of  the  possessor  pre- 
cedes the  other  in  the  possessive  case;  as,  "In  my  Father's 
house  are  many  mansions."  Men's  bravery ;  England's 
fleet ;  a  Christian's  hope  ;  Washington's  prudence. 

NOTE  1. — When  the  thing  possessed  is  obvious,  it  is  usual  to  omit  the 
name ;  as,  "  Let  us  go  to  St.  Paul's,"  that  is,  church;  "He  is  at  the 
President's,"  that  is,  house. 

"  Nor  thirk  a  lover's  are  but  fancied  woes." — Covoper.   . 
That  is,  a  lover's  woes.     "  Whose  book  is  this  ?     William's." 

NOTE  2. — When  the  possessor  is  described  by  two  or  more  names,  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  is  generally  annexed  to  the  last ;  as,  "  Edward, 
the  Second  of  England's  Queen." — Bacon  on  Empire. 

"  In  Edward  the  Third's  time."— Black.  Com.  b.  1.  ch.  2. 

"  John  the  Baptist's  head." — Matt. 

"  A  member  of  parliament' s  paying  court  to  his  constituents." 

Burke. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  119 

But  if  the  thing  possessed  is  represented  as  belonging  to  a  number 
severally  specified,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  repeated  with  each  ;  as, 
"  He  has  the  surgeon's  and  the  physician's  advice."  "  It  was  my  fa- 
ther's, mother's,  and  uncle's  opinion."* 

NOTE  3. — When  of  is  used  before  the  possessive  case  of  nouns,  there 
is  a  double  possessive,  the  thing  possessed  not  being  repeated  ;  as,  "  Vi- 
tal air  was  a  discovery  of  Priestley's."  "  Combustion,  as  now  under- 
stood, was  a  'discovery  of  Lavoisier's."  The  sense  of  which  is,  that 
vital  air  was  one  of  the  discoveries  of  Priestley.  This  idiom  prevents 
the  repetition  of  the  same  word. 

NOTE  4. — The  possessive  may  be  supplied  by  of,  before  the  name  of 
the  possessor  ;  as,  "  the  hope  of  a  Christian."  But  of  does  not  always  de- 
note possession  ;  it  denotes  also  consisting  of,  or  in,  concerning,  &c. ; 
and  in  these  cases,  its  place  cannot  be  supplied  by  the  possessive  case. 
Thus  cloth  of  wool,  cannot  be  converted  into  wool's  cloth. ;  nor  a  cup  of 
water,  into  water's  cup  ;  nor  an  idea  of  an  angel,  into  an  angel's  idea  ; 
nor  the  house  of  Lords,  into  the  Lord's  house. 

RULE  XXV. 

Participles  are  often  used  for  nouns,  and  have  the  like  ef- 
fect in  governing  them  in  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  "  A  cou- 
rier arrived  from  Madrid,  with  an  account  of  his  Catholic  ma- 
jesty's having  agreed  to  the  neutrality."  "  In  case  of  his 
Catholic  majesty's  dying  without  issue."  "  Averse  to  the 
nation's  involving  itself  in  another  war." — Hume,  Cont.  vol. 
7,  b.  2,  ch.  1.  "  Who  can  have  no  notion  of  the  same  per- 
son's possessing  different  accomplishments." — Spect.  No. 
150. 

This  is  the  true  idiom  of  the  language  ;  yet  the  omission 
of  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  a  common  fault  among  mod- 
ern writers,  who  learn  the  language  by  grammar,  and  neg- 
lect usages  which  are  much  better  authority,  and  the  basis 
of  correct  grammar.  "  Pieces  of  iron  arranged  in  such  a 
way  as  seemed  most  favorable  for  the  combustion  being 
communicated  to  every  part." — Lavoisier ,  Trans. 


m  1 

is  not  ] 

three  words  king  of  England,  are  one  name  in  effect,  and  can  have  but 
one  sign  of  the  possessive.  But  when  two  or  three  distinct  names  are 
used,  the  article  possessed  is  described  as  belonging  to  each  :  "  It  was 
my  father's  advice,  my  mother's  advice,  and  my  uncle's  advice."  We 
can  omit  advice  after  the  two  first,  but  by  no  means,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive. 


120  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  There  is  no  reason  for  hydrogen    being  an  exception." 
— Ibm.     These  expressions  are  not  English. 


RULE  XXVI. 

Transitive  verbs  and  their  participles  require  the  objective 
case  or  the  object  of  action  to  follow  them ;  as,  "  In  the  be- 
ginning, God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth" 

"If  ye  love  me,  keep  my  commandments."  "O  right- 
eous Father,  the  world  hath  not  known  thee." 

.Sometimes  the  object  and  often  the  objective  case  of  sub- 
stitutes precedes  the  governing  verb;  as,  "  The  spirit  of 
truth,  whom  the  world  cannot  receive."  "  Whom  ye  igno- 
rantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 

Whom  and  which,  when  in  the  objective  case,  always  pre- 
cede the  verb. 

In  verse,  a  greater  license  of  transposition  is  used,  than 
in  prose,  and  names  are  often  placed  before  the  governing 
verb. 

"  But  through  the  heart 
Should  jealousy  its  venom  once  diffuse" — Thomson. 

11  She  with  extended  arms  his  aid  implores" — Ibm. 

A  name  with  whatever,  whatsoever  or  whichever,  pre- 
ceding, is  placed  before  the  governing  verb;  as,  "whatsoever 
positive  ideas  we  have.'' — Locke,  2.  17. 

The  object  is  often  omitted  after  a  transitive  verb  ;  as,  he 
reads. 

NOTE  1. — We  have  some  verbs  which  govern  two  words  in  the  ob- 
jective case  j  as, 

"  Did  1  request  thee,  Maker,  from  my  clay 
To  mold  me,  man  ?"— Milton,  10,  744. 

"  God  seems  to  have  made  him  what  he  was." — Life  of  Cowper. 

"  Ask  him  his  opinion;'"     "  You  have  asked  mt  the  neics." 

Will  it  be  said  that  the  latter  phrases  are  elliptical,  for  "  ask  of  him  his 
opinion  ?"  I  apprehend  this  to  be  a  mistake.  According  to  the  true  idea 
of  the  government  of  a  transitive  verb,  him  must  be  the  object  in  the 
phrase  under  consideration,  as  much  as  in  this,  "  Ask  him  for  a  guinea  ;" 
or  in  this,  "  Ask  him  to  go." 

This  idiom  is  very  ancient,  as  we  often  see  in  the  Latin — "  Interroga- 
tus  sententiam."  Liv.  26.  33.  "  Se  id  Scipionern  orare." — Ibm.  27.17. 
"  Auxilia  regem  orabant." — Ibm.  lib.  28.  5.  The  idiom  in  both  lan- 
guages had  a  common  origin. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  121 

NOTE  2. — Some  verbs  were  formerly  used  as  transitive,  which  are  no 
longer  considered, as  such  ;  as,  tf  he  repented  Azw," — u  flee  thee  away," 
— "  he  was  swerved  " — "  the  sum  was  amounted,"  &c.  which  are  held 
improper.  . 

Cease,  however,  is  used  as  a  transitive  verb  by  our  best  writers — 
"  Cease  this  impious  rage." — Milton.  "  Her  lips  their  music  cease." — 
Tasso  by  Hoole. 

RULE  XXVII. 

Intransitive  verbs  are  followed  by  the  name  of  the  act  or 
effect,  which  the  verb  expresses  iii  action  ;  as,  "  To  live  a  life 
of  virtue  ;"  "  to  die  the  death  of  the  righteous;"  "  to  dream 
dreams;"  "  to  run  a  race  ;"  "to  sleep  the  sleep  of  death." 

We  observe,  in  these  examples,  life  is  the  name  of  living 
supposed  to  be  complete  ;  as  race  is  the  name  of  the  act  of 
running,  when  accomplished. 

NOTE. — Nearly  allied  to  this  idiom  is  that  of  using,  after  verbs  transi- 
tive or  intransitive,  certain  nouns  which  are  not  the  objects  of  the  verb, 
nor  of  precisely  the  same  sense  ;  but  which  are  either  the  names  of  the 
result  of  the  verb's  action,  or  closely  connected  with  it.  Examples  :  "  A 
guinea  weighs  five  penny  weight,  six  grains  ;"  "  a  crown  weighs  nine- 
teen penny  weight  ;"*  "  a  piece  of  cloth  measures  ten  yards." 

"  And  on  their  hinges  grate  harsh  thunder."  "  And  rivers  run  pota- 
ble gold."  "  The  crispid  brook  ran  nectar."  "  Groves  whose  rich  trees 
wept  odorous  gums  and  balm."  "  Grin  a  ghastly  smile." — Milton. 

"  Her  lips  blush  deeper  sweets." — Thomson. 

"  To  ascend  or  descend  a  flight  of  stairs,  a  ladder,  or  a  mountain" — 
"  To  cost  a  guinea."- 

Under  this  rule  or  the  following  may  be  arranged  these  expressions — 
"  Let  them  go  their  way"— "  When  matters  have  been  brought  this 
length."  Lavois.  Translation.  *'  We  turn  our  eyes  this  way  or  that 
way."  "  Reckoning  any  way  from  ourselves,  a  yard,  a  mile,"  &c. 

Locke,  2,  17. 

Similar  to  this  idiom  are  the  phrases  to  go  west  or  east — pointing 
north  or  south — north-west  or  south-east  and  the  like,  which  I  find  to  be 
Saxon  phrases  and  very  ancient. 

In  some  instances  verbs  of  this  sort  are  followed  by  two  objects ;  as, 
11  a  ring  cost  the  purchaser  an  eagle." 

*  The  radical  idea  of  weight  is  carry,  bear  or  sustain,  from  the  Saxon 
wceg,  a  balance.  The  idiom  in  question  has  its  original  in  that  idea — a 
guinea  weighs  five  penny  weights  six  grains — that  is,  carries  or  sustains 
that  weight  in  the  scales.  How  much  of  the  propriety,  and  even  of  the 
beauty  of  language  is  lost,  by  neglecting  to  study  its  primitive  state  and 
principles ! 


AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

RULE  XXVIII. 

Names  of  certain  portions  of  time  and  space,  and  espe- 
cially words  denoting  continuance  of  time  or  progression, 
are  used  without  a  governing  word ;  as,  "  Jacob  said,  I  will 
serve  thee  seven  years  for  Rachel."  "And.  dust  shalt  thou 
eat  all  the  days  of  thy  life"  "  And  he  abode  with  him  the 
space  of  a  month."  "  The  tree  of  life  yielded  her  fruit 
every  mouth."  "  In  those  days  I  Daniel  was  mourning  three 
full  weeks."  "  Whosoever  shall  urge  thee  to  go  a  mile,  go 
with  him  twain."  "  To  walk  a  mile,  or  a  league." 

"  Effects  occurring  every  moment  to  ourselves." 

"  You  have  asked  me  news  a  hundred  times." — Pope.* 

Words  expressing  particular  or  precise  points  of  time 
are  usually  preceded  by  a  preposition  ;  as,  "  at  that  hour ;" 
"  on  that  day."  But  to  both  these  rules  there  are  excep- 
tions. 

RULE   XXIX. 

The  verb  be  has  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it ;  or 
two  substitutes  connected  with  be  in  construction  are  in  the 
same  case.  "It  is  /,  be  not  afraid."  "  Thou  art  she"  "it 
is  he"  "  Who  was  he  ?"  "  Who  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?" 
u  Whom  do  they  represent  me  to  be?"  But  "  WJwm  do 
men  say  that  I  am,"  is  incorrect. 

RULE  XXX. 

Transitive  verbs  and  their  participles  admit  of  a  sentence, 
a  clause  or  a  number  of  words  as  their  object ;  as,  "  He  is 
not  alarmed  so  far,  as  to  consider  how  much  nearer  he  ap- 
proaches to  his  end" — Rambler,  No.  78. 

Consider  what?  The  whole  following  clause,  which'  is 
the  object  of  the  verb. 

*  Lowth,  followed  by  the  whole  tribe  of  writers  on  this  subject,  al- 
ledges  some  prepositions  to  be  understood  before  these  expressions  of 
time.  But  this  is  a  palpable  error,  arising  from  preconceived  notions  of 
the  necessity  of  such  words.  The  fact  is  otherwise.  All  these  peculiar 
phrases  are  idiomatic ;  and  the  remains  of  the  early  state  of  our  lan- 
guage. 

The  same  idiom  is  found  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  which 
were  built  on  a  Teutonic  foundation — it  is  found  in  the  Saxon,  from 
which  it  is  derived  to  modern  English ;  and  is  therefore  to  be  considered 
as  original,  or  coeval  with  the  language. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  123 

"  For  to  say,  a  man  has  a  positive  clear  idea  of  any  quan- 
tity, without  knowing  how  great  it  is,  is  as  unreasonable  as 
to  say,  he  has  a  positive  clear  idea  of  the  number  of  sands  on 
the  sea  shore" — Locke,  2,  17.  15.  Here  the  parts  of  this 
period  in  italics  are  the  things  said,  the  objects  of  the  verb 
say.  The  first  clause,  being  the  object  after  say,  forms,  with 
the  preceding  words,  the  nominative  to  is — and  the  same 
clause  of  the  period  is  qualified  by  the  attribute  unreasona- 
ble— For  to  say  all  which  follows  is  as  unreasonable,  &c. 

"If  he  escapes  being  banished  by  others,  I  fear  he  will 
banish  himself."  Pope,  Let.  to  Swift. 

Here  being  banished  stands  in  the  place  of  a  noun,  as  the 
object  after  escapes. 

"  Whether  that  which  we  call  ecstasy  be  not  dreaming  with 
the  eyes  open,  I  leave  to  be  examined."  Locke,  2,  19. 

•"  We  cannot  avoid  observing  their  sensible  qualities,  nay 
the  very  substances  to  be  in  a  continual  flux." — Locke,  2,  19. 

This  rule  comprehends  the  construction  of  the  verbs 
save,  except,  add,  admit,  allow,  suppose,  and  many  others 
when  used  to  govern  sentences ;  and  in  strictness,  the  old 
verbs  if,  though,  unless.  Examples : — 

"  Add  to  this,  what,  from  its  antiquity,  is  but  little  known, 
has  from  that  very  circumstance,  the  recommendation  of  nov- 
elty"— Hermes,  Preface.  In  this  sentence  the  whole  of 
the  clauses  in  italics,  is  what  is  to  be  added — and  is  the  ac- 
tual object  governed  by  the  verb  add. 

"  Suppose  then  the  world  we  live  in  to  have  had  a  Creator." 
— "  Suppose  the  disposition  which  dictated  this  council  to 
continue."  Paley,  Evid.  1. 

"  Not  forgetting  therefore  what  credit  is  due  to  the  evan- 
gelical history,  supposing  even  any  one  of  the  four  gospels 
to  be  genuine"  Tbm.  ch.  9. 

"It  is  good  also  not  to  try  experiments  in  states,  except 
the  necessity  be  urgent,  or  the  utility  evident." 

Bacon  on  Innovation. 

"  They  are  in  effect  no  more  than  standing  commissions, 
save  that  they  have  greater  authority." — Ibm.  of  Council. 

"  For  that  mortal  dint, 
Save  he  who  reigns  above,  none  can  resist." 

Milton  2,  815. 


124  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  I  wish  I  could  give  you  any  good  reasons  for  your  com- 
ing hither,  except  that,  1  earnestly  invite  you" — Pope,  Let. 

"  Lord  Bathurst  is  too  great  a  husbandman  to  like  barren 
hills,  except  they  are  his  own  to  improve." 

Pope,  Let.  Sept.  3,  1726. 

"  The  ships  of  either  party  may  freely  traffick  with  the 
enemies  of  the  other,  excepting  with  contraband  merchan- 
dise." Anderson,  Commerce,  3,  71. 

"  Suppose  I  was  to  say,  light  is  a  body" — Hermes,  78. 
"  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish." 

Luke  13. 
"  Ye  cannot  bear  fruit,  except  ye  abide  in  me." — John  15. 

"  He  that  sacrificeth  to  any  god,  save  to  the  Lord  only, 
shall  be  put  to  death."  Ex.  22,  20. 

"  And  he  could  there  do  no  mighty  works,  save  that  he 
laid  his  hand  on  afeiv  sick  and  healed  them" — Matt.  6,  5. 

"  He  that  is  washed,  needeth  not,  save  to  wash  his  feet." 

John  13. 
"  Add  to  this  their  custom  of  plantation  of  colonies" 

Bacon. 

In  these  and  similar  passages,  the  object  of  the  verb  is  a 
whole  proposition  or  statement,  in  a  sentence  or  clause  of  a 
sentence.  In  this  passage,  "  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all 
likewise  perish,"  the  fact  excepted  is  affirmed  in  a  single 
verb.  Takeaway  this  fact  "  that  you  shall  repent" — and  the 
consequence  must  be,  you  will  perish.  This  is  one  of  the 
modes  of  abbreviation  in  language  which  I  have  so  frequent- 
ly mentioned,  and  which  constitutes  a  principal  excellence 
of  the  English. 

We  observe  in  some  of  the  passages  here  cited,  the  pro- 
noun that,  after  the  verb.  This  is  probably  the  true  origin- 
al construction  ;  the  substitute  that,  pointing  to  the  whole 
following  clause.  "  He  could  do  no  mighty  works  there, 
save  that,  [except  that  single  fact  which  follows]  he  laid  his 
hand  on  a  few  sick  and  healed  them." 

NOTE. — It  may  be  here  observed  that  in  some  of  the  passages  cited 
the  verb  has  no  definitive  nominative — the  verbs  save,  except,  suppose, 
add,  &c.  are  in  the  imperative  mode ;  but  the  address  is  not  made  to 
any  particular  person  or  persons.  And  this  probably  has  led  authors  to 
class  save  and  except  among  conjunctions,  prepositions  or  adverbs,  or  to 
consider  them  as  used  adverbially  \  for  it  has  been  already  observed 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  125 

that  the  class  of  adverbs  has  been  a  sort  of  common  sink  to  receive  all 
words  which  authors  have  not  been  able  to  comprehend. 

Is  it  not  strange  that  suppose,  add,  admit,  allow,  and  other  verbs, 
which  are  constantly  used  in  the  same  manner,  should  have  hitherto  es- 
caped the  same  doom  ?  In  the  passages  above  cited  from  Paley,  suppose 
is  used  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  except  and  save  in  others.  In- 
deed nothing  but  the  most  inexcusable  negligence  could  have  led  critics 
to  this  classification  of  save  and  except — for  in  many  passages  of  scrip- 
ture, these  very  words,  in  the  sense  in  which  they  are  called  conjunc- 
tions or  adverbs,  have  an  object  following  them,  like  other  transitive 
verbs  ;  as,  "  Israel  burned  none  of  them  save  Hazor  only." — Josh.  11. 13. 
"  Ye  shall  not  come  into  the  land,  save  Caleb  and  Joshua." — Num.  14. 
30.  "  I  would  that  all  were  as  I  am,  except  these  bonds." — Acts. 

This  use  of  verbs  without  a  definite  nominative  occasions  no  incon- 
venience ;  for  the  address  is  not  made  to  any  particular  person,  but  is 
equally  applicable  to  any  one  who  will  apply  it.  See  the  subject  further 
explained  under  rule  38.  The  following  passage  in  Locke,  2, 27, 2,  con- 
tains another  verb  used  in  the  same  manner ;  "  Could  two  bodies  be  in 
the  same  place  at  the  same  time,  then  those  two  parcels  of  matter  must 
be  one  and  the  same,  take  them  great  or  little." 

The  error  of  considering  save  as  an  adverb  or  conjunction,  has  how- 
ever produced  a  multitude  of  mistakes  in  construction,  as  in  these  pas- 
sages :  "  Save  he  who  reigns  above." — Milton.  "  Which  no  man  know- 
eth,  saving  he  that  receiveth  it." — Rev.  2.  17.  The  nominative  he  can- 
not be  reconciled  to  any  principle  of  true  construction.  He  ought  to  be 
him,  the  object  after  the  verb.  Except  might  have  been  used,  and  this 
word  being  called  a  preposition,  would  have  required  after  it  the  objec- 
tive case.  But  both  words  are  verbs,  and  ought  to  have  the  same  con- 
struction. 

RULE  XXXI. 

The  infinitive  mode  follows,  first,  another  verb  or  parti- 
ciple ;  as,  "  He  loves  to  cherish  the  social  affections" — "  be 
persuaded  to  abandon  a  vicious  life" — "  he  is  willing  to  en- 
counter danger" — "  he  was  proceeding  to  relate  his  adven- 
tures." 

2dly.  The  infinitive  follows  a  noun ;  as,  "  The  next  thing 
natural  for  the  mind  to  do." — Locke.  "  He  has  a  desire  to 
improve." 

3dly.  It  follows  an  adjective  or  verbal  attribute ;  as,  "  a 
question  difficult  to  be  solved.1'  -"  It  is  deligbtful  to  contem- 
plate the  goodness  of  Providence."  "  God  is  worthy  to  be 
loved  and  trusted."  "  Be  prepared  to  receive  your  friend." 

4thly.  It  follows  as ;  thus,  "  an  object  so  high  as  to  be  in- 
visible ;"  "  a  question  so  obscure  as  to  perplex  the  under- 
standing." 

11* 


1-26  AN    IMPROVED     GRAMMAR 

5thly.  It  follows  than  after   a  comparison ;  as,  "  Nothir 
makes  a  man  suspect  much,  more  than  to  know  little." 
con  on  Suspicion. 

6thly.  It"  follows  the  preposition  for,  noting  cause  or  n 
tive;  as,  "  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see." — Matth.  11. 

This  is  the  true   original   idiom;    but  it  is  usual  n 
omit  for ;  as,  "  he  went  to  see  a  reed  shaken  with  the  wind 
In  every  phrase   of  this  sort,  for  is  implied   in  the  E 
but  the  use  of  the  word  is  vulgar. 

The  infinitive  mode  is  independent,  standing  as  a  sub> 
for  a  whole  phrase;  as,  "It  is  not  once  in  ten  attemp 
you  can  find  the   case   you  seek,  in   any  law  book ;  / 
nothing  of  those    numerous  points  of  conduct   cone- 
which  the  la*w  professes  not  to  prescribe/'! — Paley,  Philos. 

RULE     XXXII. 

The   verbs  bid,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  let,  with  the  auxili 
ries,  may,  can,  must,  shall  and  will,  and  dare  and  / 
used  as  auxiliaries,  are  followed  by  the  infinitive  without  t 
prefix  to;  as,  "He  bids  me  come" — "We  cannot  mak»- 
understand" — "Let  me  see  you    write" — "We    hear 
relate  the  story" — "We  felt  the  earth    tra  -"  Whi- 

they  let   pass." — Locke.     "He    may  go,  can  go,   mi 
shall    go,    will    go."     "I  dare  engage;  I  dare  say" — "1 
need  not  be  anxious." 

NOTE  1. — In  the  uses  of  dare  and  need,  there  are  some  peculiar!! 
which  deserve  remark. 

When  dare  signifies  to  defy  or  challenge,  it  is  regular  in  the 
and  persons,  is  a  transitive  verb,  and  followed  by  the  infiir/ 
usual  prefix  ;  as,  "  he  dares  me  to  enter  the  list.''     But  when  it  is 
transitive,  denoting  to  hare  courage,  it  more   generally   drops  t 
sonal  terminations,  has  an  anomalous  past  tense,  and  is  follower: 
infinitive  without  to  ;  in  short  it  has  the  form  of  an  auxiliary ;  and 
the  German,  it  is  classed  with  the  auxiliaries.     Example? 
gage." — Pope's  Works.  Letter  to  Gnu.     ••  I  dare  not  confer 
Gay.     fi  I  dare  say." — Locke.     "  But.  my   Loiv  re   not  do 

ther." — Juniiif.  L>\.  ^.     ••  Durst  I  Texture  to  deliver  my  owi. 
ment." — Hume,  Es.  7. 

The  past  tense,  when  regular,  is  followed  by  the  infinitive  with 
usual  prefix  : — ••'  You  have  dared  to  thrmc  more  than  a  suspick 
mine." — Junhts,  Let.  20.     The  same  remark  may  be  extended 
future  tense  ;  "  He  will  not  dare  to  attack  his  adversary." 

In  like  manner,  need,  when  a  transitive  verb,  is  regular  in  its  infl 
tions  ;  as,  "  A  man  needs  more  prudence" — "  The  army  needed  pro 
ions," — But  when  intransitive,  it  drops  the  personal  terminations  in 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  127 

present  tense  ;  is  formed  like  an  auxiliary,  and  followed  by  a  verb,  with- 
out the  prefix  to  ;  as,  "  Nobody  need  be  afraid  he  shall  not  have  scope 
enough." — Locke,  2,  22,  9.  "  1  need  not  go  any  farther." — Ibm.  "  Nor 
need  we  wonder." — Ibm.  '•'  The  lender  need  be  under  no  fear." — An- 
ach.ch.69.  "  There  need  be  no  difficulty."— Beddoes,  Hygeia,  1.  27. 
"  She  need  dig  no  more." — Spectator.  J\"o.  121.  ';  A  man  need  not  be 
uneasy  on  these  grounds." — Boswdl,  3,  41.  "  He  need  not  urge  to  this 
honorable  court." — Judge  Chase. 

In  the  use  of  this  verb,  there  is  another  irregularity,  which  is  peculiar, 
the  verb  being  without  a  nominative,  expressed  or  implied.  u  Whereof 
here  needs  no  account." — Milt.  P.  L.  4.  235.  There  is  no  evidence  of 
the  fact,  and  there  needs  hone.  This  is  an  established  use  of  need. 

NOTE  2. — The  infinitive  mode  has,  in  its  sense  and  use,  a  near  affinity 
nun,  and  often  has  the  construction  of  one.     It  is  much  employed 
:  oduce  sentences  which  are  the  nominative  to  verbs,  as  well  as  the 
objects  following  thorn  ;  as,  "  To  will  is  present  with  me,  but  to  perform 
that  which  is  good  I  find  not."     Here  the  first  infinitive  is  the  nomina- 
tive to  is,  and  the  second  begins  the  sentence  which  is  the  object  after 

\ 

NOTE  3. — A  common  mistake  in  the  use  of  the  infinitive  is,  to  use  the 
perfect  tense  after  another  verb  in  the  past  time  ;  when  in  fact  one  of  the 
verbs  in  the  past  time  would  correctly  express  the  sense  ,  thus,  "  It 
>could  have  been  no  difficult  matter  to  have  compiled  a  volume  of  such 
ng  precedents." — Cowp.  to  Hill,  Let.  29.  Here  the  first  verb  states 
he  time  past  when  it  was  not  difficult  to  compile  a  volume;  at  that 
line  the  compilation  could  not  be  past ;  the  verb  therefore  should  have 
yeen  to  compile,  which  is  present  and  always  indefinite. 

In  the  following  passage,  we  have  a  like  use  of  verbs  which  is  cor- 
rect. i:  A  free  pardon  was  granted  to  the  son,  who  was  known  to  have 
tffercd  indignities  to  the  body  of  Varus/' — Murphy,  Tacitus,  6.  1. 
'lere  the  offering  of  indignities  was  a  fact  precedent  to  the  time  stated 
n  the  verb  was  known  ;  and  therefore  the  verb,  to  have  offered,  is  well 
mployed. 

RULE  XXXIII. 

The   infinitive   signifying   motive  or   purpose,   often  intro- 

a  a  clause  or  sentence  which  is  not  the  nominative  or 

bjective  to  any  verb;  as,  "  To  see  how  far  this  reaches,  and 

hat  are  the  causes  of  wrong  judgment,  we  must  remember 

things  are  judged   good  or  bad"   in   a  double  sense." — 

~,ockc,    2,   21,    61.     "To  prevent  property    from  being   too 

nequally  distributed,  no  person   should   be   allowed   to  dis- 

ose  of  his  possessions  to  the  prejudice  of  his  lawful  heirs." 

-Anach.  ch.  62. 

NOTE. — This  form  of  sentence  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  for 
?fore  the  verb,  for  to  see.     The  modern  practice  is  to  prefix  some  noun ; 
in  order  to  see,  or  "  With  a  view  to  prevent." 


128  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 


RULE  XXXIV. 

In  the  use  of  the  passive  form  of  the  verb,  there  is  often 
an  inversion  of  the  order  of  the  subject  and  object;  thus, 
"  The  bishops  and  abbots  were  allowed  their  seats  in  the 
house  of  lords." — Blacks.  Com.  b.  1,  ch.  2. 

Here  the  true  construction  would  be,  "  Seats  in  the  house 
of  lords  were  allowed  to  the  bishops  and  abbots." 

"  Theresa  was  forbid  the  presence  of  the  emperor." — 
Murphy's  Tacitus,  2,  540.  NOTE. — This  is  a  common 
phrase.  It  may  be  resolved  thus :  the  presence  of  the  em- 
peror was  forbid  to  Theresa — or,  Theresa  was  forbid  to  ap- 
proach the  presence  of  the  emperor. 

"  I  was  this  day  shown  a  new  potato." — Darwin,  Phy- 
tol  Sect.  18. 

"  He  was  shown  that  very  story  in  one  of  his  own  books." 

Guth.  Quinc.  1.  32. 

This  idiom  is  outrageously  anomalous ;  but  perhaps  in- 
corrigible. 

RULE  XXXV. 

The  participle  of  the  present  tense  without  a  definitive  a 
or  the,  or  with  any  possessive  attribute,  usually  retains  the 
sense  of  its  verb,  and  has  the  objective  case  after  it ;  as,  "  The 
clerk  is  engrossing  the  bill."  "  The  love  we  bear  our 
friends  is  generally  caused  by  our  finding  the  same  dispo- 
sitions in  them,  which  we  feel  in  ourselves." 

Pope's  Letters. 

"  In  return  to  your  inviting  me  to  your  forest."— Ibm. 

But  when  the  participle  is  preceded  by  a  or  the,  it  takes 
the  character  and  government  of  a  noun,  and  in  most  cases, 
must  be  followed  by  of;  as  "  The  middle  station  of  life 
seems  to  be  most  advantageously  situated  for  the  gaining  of 
wisdom.  Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  much  upon  the 
supplying  of  our  wants,  and  riches,  upon  enjoying  our  su- 
perfluities." Spectator,  No.  464. 

In  many  cases  this  participle  becomes  a  noun,  without  a 
or  the;  as,  "It  is  more  properly  talking  upon  paper,  than 
writing." — Pope,  Let. 

NOTE. — The  foregoing  rule  is  often  violated  by  our  best  writers,  and 
to  make  it  universal  is  to  assume  an  authority  much  too  dictatorial. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  129 

"  Some  were  employed  in  blowing  of  glass  ;  others  in  weaving  of  linen." 

Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  10. 

"  When  the  hindering  any  action." — Locke,  2,  21. 

In  these  two  examples  the  rule  is  disregarded  to  the  prejudice  of  the 
language.  But  let  us  attend  to  the  following — "  The  attributing  to  fac- 
ulties that  which  belonged  not  to  them." — Locke,  2,21.  Here  the  par- 
ticiple preceded  by  the  cannot  be  followed  by  of,  nor  does  it  perform  the 
office  of  a  noun,  but  it  retains  the  nature  and  government  of  a  verb. 
"  The  not  making  a  will  is  a  culpable  omission. ;v — Paley,  Phil.  ch.  23. 
These  expressions  are  perfectly  good  English. 


RULE   XXXVI. 

Participles  of  the  present  tense,  either  single  or  in  union 
with  the  participle  of  the  perfect  tense,  often  perform,,  at 
once,  the  office  of  a  verb  and  a  noun;  as,  "  The  taking  from 
another  what  is  his,  without  his  knowledge  or  allowance,  is 
called  stealing."— Locke,  2.  28.  16. 

"  By  the  mind's  changing  the  object  to  which  it  Compares 
any  thing."  Locke,  2.  25. 

"  To  save  them  from  other  people's  damning  them." 

Wycherly  to  Pope. 

"Such  a  plan  is  not  capable  of  being  carried  into  execu- 
tion:'— Anach.  ch.  62. 

"  They  could  not  avoid  submitting  to  this  influence." 

Boling.  on  Hist.  Let.  8. 

"  Suppose  a  Christian^  Platonist  or  Pythagorean,  should, 
upon  God's  having  ended  all  his  works,  think  his  soul  has 
existed  ever  since." — Locke,  2.  27.  14. 

"  Taking  a  madman's  sword  to  prevent  his  doing  mis- 
chief."— Ibm.  1.  2.  20. 

"  He  was  displeased  with  the  king's  having  disposed  of 
the  office,  or  with  his  having  bestowed  it  upon  a  worthless 
man."— Henry,  Hist.  Brit.  b.  3. 

"  Its  excesses  may  be  restrained,  without  destroying  its 
existence." — Blacks.  Com.  b.  1.  ch.  2. 

"  Supposing  it  had  a  right  to  meet,  without  being  called 
together." — Ibm. 

"  He  was  near  losing  his  life." 

Dobson's  Life  of  Petrarch,  1.  29. 

"  The  advising  or  attempting  to  procure  any  insurrec- 
tion."— Judge  Chase. 


130  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

NOTE  1 . — The  participle  in  ing,  though  strictly  active  in  its  significa- 
tion, is  not  unfrequently  used  by  modern  authors  in  a  passive  sense  ;  as, 
"  More  living  particles  are  produced — than  are  necessary  for  nutrition 
or  for  the  restoration  of  decomposing  organs ;"  that  is,  organs  suffering 
decomposition. — Darwin,  Zoon.  sect.  39.  9.  "  From  which  caloric  is 
disengaging^ — that  is,  undergoing  the  process  of  separation. — Lavoisier , 
Translation.  "  The  number  is  augmenting  daily." — Ibm.  "They 
seemed  to  think  Cesar  was  slaying  before  their  eyes  rather  than  that  he 
was  slain." — Gutk.  Quin.  2.  18.  "The  nation  had  cried  out  loudly 
against  the  crime  while  it  was  committing." — Boling.  on  Hist.  Let.  8. 
"  My  lives  are  re-printing." — Johns,  to  Boswell,  1782. 

Many  of  this  kind  of  participles  have  become  mere  attributes  ;  as, 
"  Writing  paper ;  looking  glass  ;  spelling  or  pronouncing  dictionary." 
Wanting  and  owing  have  long  had  the  character  of  passive  participles — 
with  the  sense  of  wanted,  owed. 

NOTE  2. — The  use  of  two  participles  in  the  place  of  a  noun  is  one  of 
the  most  frequent  practices  of  our  best  writers  ;  as,  "  This  did  not  pre- 
vent John's  being  acknowledged  and  solemnly  inaugurated  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy."— Henry,  Hist.  Brit.  b.  3.  The  participle  being  with  an  attri- 
bute, supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  also.  "As  to  the  difference  of  being 
'more  general,  that  makes  this  maxim  more  remote  from  being  innate" — 
Locke,  1.  2.  20. 

RULE     XXXVII. 

Participles,  like  attributes,  agree  with  a  sentence,  a  part 
of  a  sentence  or  a  substitute  for  a  sentence;  as,  "  Concerning 
relation  in  general,  these  things  may  be  considered." 

Locke,  2.  25. 

Here  concerning  relates  to  the  whole  of  the  last  clause  of 
the  sentence — "  These  things  may  be  considered" — all  which 
is  concerning  relation  in  general. 

"  This  criterion  will  be  different,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  object  which  the  mind  contemplates." 

Enfield,  Hist.  Ph.  2.  15. 

That  is,  the  difference  of  criterion  will  accord  with  the  na- 
ture of  the  object. 

"  According  to  Hierocles,  Ammonius  was  induced  to  ex- 
ecute the  plan  of  a  distinct  eclectic  school,"  &c. 

Ibm.  p.  63, 

Here  the  whole  statement  of  facts  in  the  last  clause  was 
according  to  Hierocles ;  that  is,  it  accorded  with  his  .testi- 
mony. 

"I  have  accepted  thee,  concerning  this  thing  also." 

Gen.  19, 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  131 

tll  speak  concerning  Christ  and  the  church." 

Eph.  5.  32. 

"  Thus  shalt  thou  do  unto  the  Levites,  touching  their 
charge."— Num.  8.  26. 

"  And  touching  the  house  of  the  king  of  Judah,  say,  Hear 
ye  the  word  of  the  Lord." — Jer.  21.  10. 

"  Now  as  touching  things  offered  unto  idols,  we  know  that 
we  all  have  knowledge." — 1  Cor.  8.  1. 

In  general,  as  is  used  in  scripture  before  touching,  and 
the  construction  is,  "  Now,  as,  or  that  which  follows  is 
touching  things  offered  to  idols."  Since  the  translation  of 
the  Bible,  this  word  touching,  in  this  sense,  has  been  obso- 
lescent, and  respecting  has  taken  its  place. 

"  He  finds  the  ideas  he  has  in  his  mind  to  agree  or  dis- 
agree^according  as  the  words  standing  for  them  are  affirm- 
ed or  denied  one  of  another  in  the  proposition." 

Locke,  1.  2.  23. 

NOTE. — The  use  of  participles  explained  under  this  rule,  coincides 
with  that  of  attributes  as  explained  under  rule  17. 

RULE    XXXVIII. 

Participles  often  stand  without  a  name,  sentence  or  sub- 
stitute on  which  they  immediately  depend,  being  referable 
to  either  of  the  persons  indefinitely;  as,  "It  is  not  possible 
to  act  otherwise,  considering  the  weakness  of  our  nature." 
— Spectator. 

NOTE  1. — Johnson,  in  his  Dictionary,  calls  this  a  kind  of  conjunction, 
and  adds — "  It  had  been  more  grammatically  written  considered,  vu 
French,  but  considering  is  always  used." 

This  criticism  indicates  an  incorrect  view  of  the  subject.  Considered 
cannot  be  used  without  a  change  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence — 
"  The  weakness  of  our  nature  being  considered."  But  to  make  this  form 
of  expression  correspondent  to  the  other  clause,  that  ought  also  to  be 
varied,  and  a  definite  person  introduced,  thus — "  It  does  not  appear  (to 
us)  possible  to  act  otherwise,  the  weakness  of  our  nature  being  consid- 
ered." But  this  amendment  would  be  of  no  advantage. 

To  comprehend  the  use  of  such  expressions,  we  should  consider  that 
men  find  it  useful  to  deal  in  abstract  propositions  and  lay  down  truths 
without  reference  to  persons.  This  manner  of  discoursing  is  often  less 
invidious  than  to  apply  propositions  or  opinions  to  persons.  To  accom- 
plish this  purpose,  men  have  devised  words  and  modes  of  speech  which 
enable  them  thus  to  communicate  their  ideas.  In  the  passage  cited,  the 
first  clause  contains  a  general  abstract  proposition,  equally  applicable  to 
any  person — "  It  is  not  possible  to  act  otherwise."  That  is,  it  is  not  pos- 


132  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

sible  for  me,  for  you,  for  him,  or  for  her — but  it  might  be  invidious  to 
specify  persons.  It  is  not  possible  for  John  or  Thomas  to  act  otherwise, 
he  considering  the  weakness  of  his  nature.  Hence  the  proposition  is 
left  without  application — and  it  follows  naturally  that  the  persons  who 
are  to  consider  the  cause,  the  weakness  of  our  nature,  should  be  left 
indefinite,  or  unascertained.  Hence  considering  is  left  without  a  direct 
application  to  any  person. 

Whatever  foundation  there  may  be  for  this  explanation,  the  idiom  is 
common  and  well  authorized. 

"  Generally  speaking,  the  heir  at  law  is  not  bound  by  the  intention  of 
the  testator."— Paley,  Phil.  23. 

"  Supposing  that  electricity  is  actually  a  substance,  and  taking  it  for 
granted  that  it  is  different  from  caloric,  does  it  not  in  all  probability  con- 
tain caloric,  as  well  as  all  other  bodies  ?" 

Thompson,  Chim.  art.  Caloric, 

Here  is  no  noun  expressed  or  implied,  to  which  supposing  and  taking 
can  be  referred ;  we  would  be  most  naturally  understood— 

"  Supposing  the  first  stratum  of  particles  to  remain  in  their  place, 
after  their  union  with  caloric?  ice  can  conceive  an  affinity,"  &c. — Ibm. 
Here  supposing  may  be  referred  to  ice,  but  is  this  the  rearconstruction  ? 

"  For  supposing  parliament  had  a  right  to  meet  spontaneously,  with- 
out being  called  together,  it  would  be  impossible  to  conceive  that  all  the 
members  would  agree,"  &c. — Blacks.  Com.  b.  1.  2. 

"  The  articles  of  this  charge,  considering  by  whom  it  was  brought, 
were  not  of  so  high  a  nature  as  might  have  been  expected." 

Henry.  Brit.  b.  4.  ch.\. 

"  It  is  most  reasonable  to  conclude  that,  excepting  the  assistance  he 
maybe  supposed  to  have  derived  from  his  countrymen,  his  plan  of  civi- 
lization was  the  product  of  his  own  abilities." — Enfield.  H.  Ph.  1.  ch.  9. 

"  None  of  us  put  off  our  clothes,  saving  that  every  one  put  them  off 
for  washing." — Neh.  4.  23. 

"  And  he  said  unto  them,  Hinder  me  not,  seeing  the  Lord  hath  pros- 
pered my  way." — Gen.  24.  56. 

"  Lie  not  one  to  another,  seeing  that  ye  have  put  off  the  old  man  with 
his  deeds."—  Col.  3.  9. 

"  Comparing  two  men,  in  reference  to  a  common  parent,  it  is  easy  to 
frame  the  ideas  of  brothers." — Locke,  2.  25. 

"  Granting  this  to  be  true,  it  would  help  us  in  the  species  of  things 
no  farther  than  the  tribes  of  animals  and  vegetables." — Locke,  3.  0.  23. 

Bating  for  abating,  in  a  like  construction,  is  found  in  old  authors,  but 
now  obsolete.  Admitting,  allowing,  and  some  others  are  frequent  in  a 
like  construction. 

The  substitute,  which,  in  most  of  these  phrases,  might  be  most  con- 
veniently supplied,  is  we,  as  the  writer  maybe  considered  as  addressing 
himself  to  his  readers,  and  including  them  with  himself. 

It  will  be  readily  observed  how  nearly  this  idiom  is  allied  to  the  inde- 
pendent clause;  for,  by  a  trifling  change,  these  sentences  may  be  re- 
solved into  that  case.  "  Two  men  being  compared  in  reference  to  a 
common  parent,  it  is  easy  [for  us,  you  or  him]  to  frame  the  ideas  of 
brothers." — "  Hinder  me  not,  since  (seeing)  the  Lord  hath  prospered 
my  way." 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  133 

RULE  XXXIX. 

Adverbs  or  modifiers  are  usually  placed  near  the  words 
whose  signification  they  are  intended  to  affect. 

First.  They  are  placed  before  adjectives  ;  as,  truly  wise  ; 
sincerely  upright ;  unaffectedly  polite. 

Secondly.  They  usually  follow  a  verb  when  single  ;  as, 
he  spoke  eloquently ;  and  if  a  verb  is  transitive  with  an 
object  following,  the  modifier  follows  the  object;  as,  "John 
received  the  present  gratefully." 

To  this  rule,  the  exceptions  are  very  numerous,  and  not 
to  be  classed  under  general  heads.  "So  it  frequently  hap- 
pens ;"  "  men  often  deceive  themselves." — Indeed,  in  many 
cases,  the  position  of  the  modifier  makes  no  difference  in  the 
sense,  and  may  be  regulated  entirely  by  the  preference  of 
sound,  in  the  general  structure  of  the  period,  provided  it  is 
not  such  as  to  mislead  the  reader,  in  the  application  of  the 
word. 

Thirdly.  When  one  auxiliary  and  a  participle  are  used, 
the  modifier  is  usually  placed  between  them,  or  it  follows  the 
participle  ;  as,  "  he  was  graciously  received,"  or  "  he  was 
received  graciously ."  The  first  is  the  most  elegant. 

Fourthly.  When  two  auxiliaries  are  used,  the  adverb  is 
usually  placed  after  the  second  ;  as,  "  We  have  been  kindly 
treated" — But  it  may  follow  the  participle,  "  We  have  been 
treated  kindly  ;"  and  in  some  cases  it  may  precede  the  aux- 
iliaries ;  as,  "  And  certainly  you  must  have  known." — Junius, 
Letter  8. 

Fifthly.  When  adverbs  are  emphatical,  they  may  intro- 
duce a  sentence,  and  be  separated  from  the  word  to  which 
they  belong  ;  as,  "  How  completely  this  most  amiable  of 
human  virtues  had  taken  possession  of  his  soul !" — Port. 
Lect.  8.  This  position  of  the  modifier  is  most  frequent  in 
interrogative  and  exclamatory  phrases. 

The 'adverb  always  is  usually  placed  before  a  verb. 

Never  commonly  precedes  a  single  verb,  except  be,  which 
it  follows;  as,  "We  are  never  absent  from  church  on  Sun- 
day." It  is  sometimes  placed  before  an  auxiliary  ;  as,  "  He 
never  has  been  at  court ;"  but  it  is  more  correctly  and  ele- 
gantly placed  after  the  first  auxiliary;  as,  "  He  has  never 
been  at  court" — "  He  has  never  been  intoxicated." 

This  word  has  a  peculiar  use  in  the  phrase,  "  ask  me 
never  so  much  dowry." — Gen.  34.  "  The  voice  of  charmr 
12 


134  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

ers,  charming  never  so  wisely." — Psalm  58.  The  sense  is, 
"  Ask  me  so  much  dowry  as  never  was  asked  before" — an 
abbreviation  singularly  expressive  of  the  idea  of  asking  to 
any  amount  or  extent.  Authors  not  understanding  it,  have 
substituted  ever  for  never,  which  impairs  the  force,  if  it  does 
not  destroy  the  sense,  of  the  phrase.  The  use  of  both  is 
now  common,  but  never  is  preferable — "  Some  agreements 
indeed,  though  never  so  expressly  made,  are  deemed  of  so 
important  a  nature,  that  they  ought  not  to  rest  in  verbal 
promise  only." — Black.  Com..  B.  3.  ch.  9. 

The  use  of  here  and  there,  in  the  introduction  of  sentences 
before  verbs,  forms  an  authorized  idiom  of  the  language ; 
though  the  words  may  be  considered  as  redundant.  The 
practice  may  have  originated  in  the  use  of  the  hand  in 
pointing,  in  the  early  stage  of  society. 

Here,  there,  and  where,  originally  denoting  place,  are 
now  used  in  reference  to  words,  subjects  and  various  ideas 
of  which  place  is  not  predicable.  "  It  is  not  so  with  re- 
spect to  volitions  and  actions ;  here  the  coalescence  is  inti- 
mate."— Hermes,  ch.  8.  "  We  feel  pain,  in  the  sensations, 
where  we  expected  pleasure." — Locke,  2.  7.  4. 

Hence,  whence,  and  thence,  denoting  the  place  from  which 
a  departure  is  stated,  are  used  either  with  or  without  the 
preposition  from.  In  strictness,  the  idea  of  from  is  in- 
cluded in  the  words,  and  it  ought  not  to  be  used.  These 
words  also  are  used  not  only  in  reference  to  place,  but  to 
any  argument,  subject,  or  idea,  in  a  discourse. 

Hither,  thither,  and  whither,  denoting  to  a  place,  are 
nearly  obsolete  in  popular  practice  ;  and  obsolescent  in 
writing  ;  being  superseded  by  here,  there,  where.  This 
change  is  evidently  the  effect  of  the  all-controlling  disposi- 
tion of  men  to  abridge  speech  by  dismissing  useless  sylla- 
bles, or  by  substituting  short  words  of  easy  pronunciation 
for  those  which  are  more  difficult.  Against  this  disposition 
and  its  effects,  the  critic  remonstrates  in  vain  ;  and  we  may 
rest  assured  that  common  convenience  and  utility  are  better 
guides  in  whatever  respects  the  use  of  words,  than  the 
opinion  of  men  in  their  closets.  No  word  or  syllable  in  a 
language,  which  is  essential,  or  very  useful,  is  ever  lost. 

While  is  a  noun  denoting  time,  and  not  a  modifier.  In 
this  phrase,  "  I  will  go  while  you  stay,"  the  word  is  used 
in  its  primitive  manner,  without  government,  like  many 
other  names  of  portions  of  time — a  month,  a  week. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  135 

We  are  accustomed  to  use,  as  modifiers,  a  little  and  a 
great  deal.  "The  many  letters  I  receive,  do  not  a  little 
encourage  me." — Sped.  No.  124.  Many  names  are  used  in 
like  manner,  as  modifiers  of  the  sense  of  verbs.  "  You  don't 
care  six-pence  whether  he  was  wet  or  dry." — Johnson. 

RULE  XL. 

In  polite  and  classical  language,  two  negatives  destroy  the 
negation  and  express  an  affirmative  ;  as,  "  Nor  did  he  not 
perceive  them," — that  is,  he  did  not  perceiye  them.  This 
phraseology  is  not  common  nor  agreeable  to  the  genius  of 
our  tongue. 

The  following  is  a  common  and  well  authorized -use  of 
negatives  :  "  His  manners  are  not  inelegant,"  that  is,  are 
elegant.  This  manner  of  expression,  however,  when  not 
accompanied  with  particular  emphasis,  denotes  a  moderate 
degree  of  the  quality. 

NOTE. — In  popular  language,  two  negatives  are  used  for  a  negation, 
according  to  the  practice  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  the  modern  French. 
This  idiom  was  primitive,  and  was  retained  in  the  Saxon;  as,  "  Oc  se 
kinning  Peada  tie  rixade  nune,  while." — Sax.  Chron.  p.  33.  And  the 
king  Peada  did  not  reign  none  while — that  is,  not  a  long  time.  The 
learned,  with  a  view  to  philosophical  correctness,  have  rejected  the  use 
of  two  negatives  for  one  negation.  The  consequence  is,  we  have  two 
modes  of  speaking  directly  opposite  to  each  other,  but  expressing  the 
same  thing.  "  He  did  not  owe  nothing,"  in  vulgar  language,  and  "  he 
owed  nothing,"  in  the  style  of  the  learned,  mean  precisely  the  same 
thing. 

RULE  XLI. 

Prepositions  are  followed  by  the  names  of  objects  and  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia;  across 
the  Delaware  ;  over  land  ;  by  water ;  through  the  air ;  with 
us ;  for  me ;  to  them  ;  in  you ;  among  the  people ;  toward 
us. 

The  preposition  to  is  supposed  to  be  omitted  after  verbs 
of  giving,  yielding,  affording,  and  the  like ;  as,  "  give  them 
bread,"  instead  of  "  give  bread  to  them."  "  Afford  him  pro- 
tection ;"  "  furnish  her  with  books."  But  this  idiom  seems 
to  be  primitive,  and  not  elliptical. 

From  is  sometimes  suppressed,  as  in  this  phrase  :  "  He 
was  banished  the  kingdom." 

Home,  after  a  verb  denoting  motion  to,  is  always  used 
without  to;  as,  "  We  are  going  home." 


136  -AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

After  the  attribute  near,  to  is  often  omitted  ;  as,  "  To 
bring  them  nearer  the  truth." — Massillon.  Also,  after  ad- 
joining ;  as,  "  a  garden  adjoining  a  river." 

The  preposition  is  sometimes  separated  from  the  word 
which  it  governs  ;  as,  "  With  a  longing  for  that  state  which 
he  is  charmed  with"  instead  of  "  with  which  he  is  charmed." 

In  many  cases;  the  relative  pronoun  may  be  suppressed  ; 
as,  "  I  did  not  see  the  person  he  came  with"  that  is,  with 
whom  he  came — and  in  other  cases,  what  is  employed  for  the 
word  governed  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  what  person  he  gave  the 
present  to." 

This  separation  of  the  preposition  from  the  word  govern- 
ed by  it,  and  the  suppression  of  the  substitute,  are  most 
common  and  most  allowable  in  colloquial  and  epistolary 
language.  In  the  grave  and  elevated  style,  they  are  sel- 
dom elegant ;  and  never  to  be  admitted  to  the  prejudice  of 
perspicuity  ;  as  in  the  following  passage — "  Of  a  space  or 
number,  which,  in  a  constant  and  endless  enlarging  progres- 
sion, it  can  in  thought  never  attain  to." — Locke,  2.  17.  8. 

A  separation  of  the  preposition  to  such  a  distance  from 
the  word  with  which  it  is  connected  in  construction,  is  per- 
plexing and  inelegant. 

NOTE. — In  the  use  of  who  as  an  interrogative,  there  is  an  apparent 
deviation  from  regular  construction — it  being  used  without  distinction  of 
case  ;  as,  "  Who  do  you  speak  to  ?"  "  Who  is  she  married  to  ?"  "  Who 
is  this  reserved  for?"  "Who  was  it  made  by?"  This  idiom  is  not 
merely  colloquial ;  it  is  found  in  the  writings  of  our  best  authors.  It  is 
the  Latin  cut  and  quo. 

RULE  XLII. 

Prepositions  govern  sentences  and  clauses,  or  members 
of  sentences  ;  as,  "  The  marine  acid — dissolves  all  metals, 
without  excepting  gold,  silver  or  mercury. "-^Encyc.  Art. 
Mineralogy. 

"  Without  seeking  any  more  justifiable  reasons  of  hostil- 
ity."— Hume,  1.  5. 

"  Besides  making  an  expedition  into  Kent." 

Hume,  1.  36. 
"  From  what  has  been  said." — Blair's  Serm. 

"  To  the  general  history  of  these  periods  will  be  added, n 
&,c. — Enfield,  Prelim. 

"  About  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century." — Ibm. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  137 

"  By  observing  these  rules  and  precautions." — Ibm. 
"In  comparing  the  proofs  of  questionable  facts." — Ibm. 

"  For   want  of  carefully    attending  to  the  preceding  dis- 
tinction."— Enfield,  H.  Ph.  b.  2. 

"  After  men  became  Christians." — Paley^s  Evid.  ch.  1. 

"  Before  you  were  placed  at  the  head  of  affairs." 

Junius,  Let.  8. 

"  Personal  bravery  is  not  enough  to  constitute  the  gene- 
ral, without  he  animates  the  whole  army  with  courage." 

Fielding's  Socrates,  p.  188. 

"  Pray  get  these  verses  by  heart  against  I  see  you." 

Chesterfield,  Let. 

"  After  having  made  me  believe  that  I  possessed  a  share 
in  your  affection." — Pope,  Let.  7. 

"  Ambition,  envy, — will  take  up  our  minds,  without  we 
can  possess  ourselves  with  sobriety." — Spect.  No.  143. 

NOTE. — We  observe,  in  the  foregoing,  passages,  the  preposition  has 
two  uses — one  is  to  precede  a  word  to  which  other  words  are  annexed 
as  necessary  to  complete  the  sense — "  about  the  beginning/'  Here  the 
sense  is  not  complete — the  time  is  not  designated.  To  define  the  time 
which  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  about,  it  is  necessary  to  add  the 
words  <•  of  the  eleventh  century" — about  that  time.  So  that  the  whole 
clause  is  really  the  object  after  the  preposition. 

The  other  use  of  the  preposition  is  to  precede  nouns,  verbs  or  other 
words,  which  are  not  the  object  of  the  preposition,  but  which  have  a 
construction  independent  of  it;  as,  "after  men  became  Christians." 
Here  men  is  the  nominative  to  became  ;  yet  the  whole  proposition  is  as 
really  the  object  governed  by  after,  as  the  word  hour,  in  the  phrase,  af- 
ter that  ftour.  "  Against  I  see  you,"  is  a  phrase  of  like  construction. 
No  single  word  is  an  object  or  in  the  objective  case  after  against ;  but 
the  whole  affirmation  is  the  object.  "  Without  we  can  possess  our- 
selves," has  a  like  construction,  and  though  superseded,  in  a  degree,  by 
unless,  a  word  of  similar  import,  is  a  true  English  phrase :  After  [this 
fact]  men  became  Christians — Against  [that  time  when]  I  see  you — 
Without  [this  fact]  we  can  possess  ourselves. 

Let  us  examine  the  following  sentence  :  "  After  thus  considering 
what  was  likely  to  happen,  we  are  next  to  inquire,"  &c. — Paley,  Evid. 
ch.  2.  Here  considering  refers  to  we;  but  is  it  not,  with  the  whole 
clause,  governed  by  after  as  the  object  ? 

",^hen  we  would  consider  eternity  a  parte  ante,  what  do  we  but  re- 
peat in  our  minds  the  idea  of  years  and  ages  ?" — Locke,2. 17, 10.  Here 
but  has  the  force  of  a  preposition,  or  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode — 
equivalent  to  except :  What  do  we — except  this — we  repeat,  &c, 

4CMan,  but  for  this,  no  action  could  attend, 
And,  but  for  thatt  were  active  to  no  end." — Pope. 


138  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  What  with  more  decency  were  in  silence  kept, 

And  but  for  this  unjust  reproach,  had  slept." — Dryd.  Virg.  10.  96. 
"  The  law  never  speaks  but  to  command." — Paley,  Ph.  3. 

RULE  XLIII. 

The  words  if,  though,  unless,  and  lest,  may  be  followed 
by  verbs  in  the  future  tense,  without  the  usual  auxiliaries 
shall,  will  or  should;  as,  "If  his  son  ask  bread,  will  he 
give  him  a  stone  ?"  "  If  he  ask  a  fish,  will  he  give  him  a 
serpent  ?"  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 
"  He  shall  not  eat  of  the  holy  things,  unless  he  wash  his 
flesh  with  water."  "  Lest  thou  say,  I  have  made  Abram 
rich." 

Except  has  a  like  effect  upon  the  following  verb  ;  as,  "I 
will  not  let  thee  go,  except  thou  bless  me."  Whether  has 
been  numbered  also  among  the  conjunctions,  which  require 
the  conditional  mode,  but  by  an  egregious  mistake.  It  is 
not  a  connective,  nor  does  it  imply  a  condition  or  hypothe- 
sis, but  an  alternative. 

NOTE. — The  arrangement  of  the  foregoing  form  of  the  verb,  in  the 
present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mode,  is  one  of  the  most  palpable  mis- 
takes that  the  compilers  of  English  grammars  have  committed.  It  seems 
to  have  originated  in  the  Saxon  and  ancient  English  practice  of  omitting 
the  personal  termination,  to  express  future  time — shall  and  will  not  being 
much  used,  in  ancient  times,  for  this  purpose.  In  consequence  of  this 
practice,  the  translators  of  the  Bible,  who  wrote  the  style  of  the  age  of 
Elizabeth,*  rarely  made  any  difference  between  a  present  uncertainty 
and  a  future  contingency ;  so  that  the  present  and  future  tenses  of  the 
original  are  confounded,  and  the  form  of  the  verb  in  English  which  com- 
prehends both,  has  been  placed  by  grammarians  in  the  present  tense  of 
the  conditional  mode. 

Deut.  9.  28.  Lest  the  land  say — In  the  original,  lest  the  land  shall 
say — in  the  future. 

Deut.  30.  17.  If  th,ine  heart  turn  away,  so  that  thou  wilt  not  hear — 
original — if  thine  heart  shall  turn — in  the  future. 

1  Kings  8.  31.  If  any  man  trespass  against  his  neighbor — original — 
shall  trespass. 

As  a  general  fact,  the  original  Hebrew  verb,  which  the  translators 
have  rendered  by  a  verb  without  shall  or  will  or  a  personal  termination, 
is  in  the  future  tense ;  and  the  English  verb,  having  the  sense  of  the  fu- 
ture, ought  to  be  arranged  in  grammars  under  that  tense. 

*  The  present  translation  of  the  Bible  is  commonly  considered  as  made 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.  but  on  comparing  it  with  the  translations  pub- 
lished in  the  beginning  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  it  is  evident  that  the  last 
translators  merely  revised  the  former  copies,  altering  a  few  phrases  and 
'  words  \  but  leaving  the  body  of  the  style  unaltered. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  139 

This  remark  is  confirmed  by  the  Greek  translation  of  the  seventy — 
who  render  the  Hebrew  by  a  verb  in  the  future  or  by  an  aorist,  the  sense 
of  which  after  a  sign  of  condition,  is  future. 

Job  13.  15.     Though  he  should  slay  me. 

Levit.  22.  6.     Unless  he  shall  wash  his  body. 

Gen.  14.  23.     Lest  thou  shouldst  say — or  that  thou  shouldst  not  say. 

Gen.  32.  26.     Except  thou  shall  bless  me. 

See  also  Gen.  19.  15,  Ex.  20. 19,  and  indeed  examples  in  almost  every 
chapter  in  the  Old  Testament. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  aorist,  with  the  sense  of  a  future,  is  gen- 
erally rendered  by  a  like  form  'of  the  English  verb.  "  Take  heed  lest 
any  man  deceive  you" — that  is,  shall  or  should  deceive  you.  See  1  Cor. 
10.  12,  Heb.  3.  12,  a  future  tense, — Luke  8.  12,  and  numerous  other 
examples. 

The  translation  may  be  considered  as  correct ;  but  to  make  it  correct, 
the  verbs  should  in  grammars  be  arranged  under  the  future  tense,  or  an 
aorist. 

For  want  of  attention  to  the  distinction  between  present  uncertainty 
and  future  contingency,  the  translators  have  confounded  two  tenses  of 
the  original,  into  one  in  English.  Thus  Matt.  4.  3.  ought  to  be  trans- 
lated— if  thou  art  the  son  of  God  ;  so  also  Luke  23.  35.  The  original  is  in 
the  indicative — if  he  is  the  son  of  God.  So  also  in  John  10.  24-*-l.  25 — 
15.  18.  If  the  world  hates  you  ;'  in  the  indicative.  Acts  3.  39 — if  it  is 
of  God.  See  also  John  7. 17—1  John  4.  1.  and  8.  13. 

In  these  and  numerous  other  passages,  the  original  Greek  tense  is  cor- 
rectly placed  in  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative — expressing  a  condi- 
tion or  uncertainty  respecting  a  present  fact  or  event.  And  our  common 
people  who  learn  the  language  by  tradition,  preserve  this  use  of  the  In- 
dicative, which  was  its  primitive  use  ;  for  the  Greeks  and  English  derive 
it  from  the  same  source. 

"  And  shall  not  God  avenge  his  own  elect,  who  cry  to  him  day  and 
night,  though  he  bear  long  with  them  ?" — Luke  18.  7.  In  the  original, 
though  he  bears  long  with  them.  The  fact  is  not  mentioned  as  a  future 
contingency — though  he  should  bear  ;  but  as  a  fact  admitted — though  he 
bears  long  with  them,  still  he  will  be  avenged. 

"  But  though  our  outward  man  perish,  yet  the  inward  man  is  renewed 
day  by  day." — 2.  Cor.  4.  16.  The  original,  diaphtheiretai,  is  in  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  the  indicative — though  our  outward  man  perishes,  or  rather 
is  perishing  or  decaying.  The  translation,  which  indicates  a  future 
casual  event,  though  our  outward  man  perish,  [that  is,  should  perish,] 
seems  not  to  convey  the  Apostle's  meaning,  for  he  evidently  speaks  of  a 
fact  conceded,  as  present. 

I  might  extend  these  criticisms  to  almost  every  passage  in  the  Bible, 
in  which  this  pretended  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in 
our  version,  and  show  that  the  translators  have  confounded  two  tenses, 
which,  in  the  original,  are  uniformly  kept  distinct. 

To  demonstrate  the  impropriety  of  that  practice,  let  us  attend  to  the 
principles  of  our  own  tongue. 

It  has  been  before  remarked  that  if,  though  and  unless,  are  old  Saxon 
verbs  in  the  imperative  mode,  and  that  the  ingenious  invention  of  our 
ancestors  to  express  a  condition  or  supposition  was,  to  employ  a  verb, 
with  the  sense  of  give,  grant,  put,  be,  if,  that  is,  give  the  fact.  We  re- 


140  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

tain  the  idiom,  and  the  words  employed ;  but  as  these  have  lost  their  in- 
flections, critics  have  ignorantly  classed  them  with  conjunctions — a  part 
of  speech  to  which  they  have  no  more  alliance  than  they  have  to  nouns 
or  adjectives.*  We  have  also  certain  words  of  Latin  original,  employed 
for  precisely  the  same  purpose — suppose,  allow  and  admit,  which  indeed 
are  not  yet  misnamed  and  classed  with  conjunctions. 

The  Saxon  method  therefore  of  expressing  condition,  doubt  or  hy- 
pothesis, was  to  declare  the  fact  which  was  to  be  supposed,  by  a  verb  in 
the  indicative  mode,  and  prefix  to  this  fact  or  statement,  a  verb  in  the 
imperative  mode,  denoting  give,  grant  or  suppose.  Thus,  "  Give  his 
son  shall  ask  bread,  will  he  give  him  a  stone  ?"  Give,  in  the  imperative, 
and  his  son  shall  ask  bread,  a  sentence  following  give  as  its  object.  This 
is  precisely  the  construction  of  such  sentences  of  a  conditional  kind.  Now 
to  omit  the  personal  termination  of  the  verb  in  the  hypothetical  sentence. 
"  Give,  he  ask  bread/'  is  to  convert  the  sentence  into  false  English,  un- 
less we  suppose  the  tense  future,  and  the  auxiliary  vnll  or  shall  sup- 
pressed. In  the  present  tense,  it  is  just  as  bad  English,  as  to  omit  the 
termination  after  the  Latin  equivalent  words  suppose  or  admit.  "  Sup- 
pose his  son  ask  bread" — "  Suppose  he  be  the  son  of  God." 

Unless  is  a  verb,  onlysan,  to  unloose,  release,  dismiss,  put  away,  re- 
move. Unless  he  wash  his  flesh,  he  will  be  unclean.  That  is,  dismiss 
(or  suppose  not  to  exist)  this  fact — he  wash  his  flesh,  and  he  will  be  un- 
clean. This  shows  that  the  sentence  is  not  English,  except  we  consider 
wash  as  in  the  future,  and  the  auxiliary  shall  suppressed.  That  the 
tense  is  future,  is  not  only  obvious,  from  the  sense  of  the  verb  itself,  but 
from  the  following  clause — If  his  son  (shall)  ask  bread,  icill  he  give  him 
a  stone  ? — Unless  he  (shall)  wash  his  flesh,  he  icill  be  unclean — the  last 
clauses  are  in  the  future,  corresponding  in  time  with  the  contingent 
events  expressed  in  the  first  clause. 

The  use  of  the  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive,  without 
the  personal  terminations,  was  formerly  very  general.  It 
was  reserved  for  the  classical  writers  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury to  lay  aside  the  pedantic  forms,  if  he  go,  if  it  proceed, 
though  he  come,  &,c.,  and  restore  the  native  idiom  of  the  lan- 
guage, by  writing  it  as  men  spoke  it,  and  as  they  still  speak 
it,  unless  perverted  by  grammars. 

"  If  they  are  notions  imprinted.'1 — Locke  on  Und.  p.  15. 
Lon.  1796. 

"  If  principles  are  innate." — p.  28. 

"  If  any  person  hath  put  such  a  notion  into  his  head." — 
p.  73. 

"  Whether  that  substance  thinks  or  no/' — p.  82. 


*  "  If  his  son  ask  bread,  will  he  give  him  a  stone  ?"  In  the  name  of 
reason,  what  single  property  of  a  conjunction  has  if?  "  Though  he  slay 
me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him."  What  connecting  powers  has  though ,f 
Not  the  least ;  and  this  is  equally  true  of  si  and  nisi  in  Latin. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  141 

"  Whether  the  soul  doth  think — whether  it  has  pleasure 
or  pain — or  be  [is]  capable  of  happiness  or  misery." — p.  83. 

"  Though  a  shadow  consists  in  nothing  but  the  absence 
of  light."— p.  110. 

"  Whether  these  his  observations  are  justly  grounded,  I 
cannot  tell."— Sped.  No.  265. 

"  If  I  am  rightly  informed." — Ibm. 

"  If  he  has  not  the  pomp  of  a  numerous  train." — No.  264. 

"  Though  mutual  esteem  produces  mutual  desire  to  please." 

Rasselas,  29. 

"  If  he  was  but  feared." — Rambler,  No.  4. 

"  If  his  health  was  impaired." — No.  5. 

"If  he  is  born  to  think."— No.  7. 

"  If  he  is  dwelling  with  delight." — No.  8. 

"  If  he  pretends  to  hold  him  to  syllogism." — No.  9. 

"  Of  which  the  writer,  if  he  was  to  live  now,  would  be 
ashamed."— No.  29. 

"If  it  was  not  for  you." — Pope's  Letters. 

"If  there  was  no  other  way." — Hume  continued,  7.  ch.  2. 

"  If  the  revolution  was  not  lawful — if  the  doctor  was  guil- 
ty."— Ibm.  ch.  5. 

"  If  this  was  the  decision  of  man  only." — Porteus,  Lect.  3. 

"  If  he  has  declared." — Ibm. 

"  If  the  reality  is  proved." — Ibm.  Lect.  6. 

"  Though  this  institution  is  calculated." — Coxe,  Trav. 
Russia. 

"  Unless  some  powerful  motive  animates  this  regularity 
and  decency  of  appearance." — Anacharsis,  Trans,  ch.  47. 

"  If  a  soldier  has  quitted  his  rank — if  he  is  married — if 
the  person  admits  the  augmentation — if  he  does  not." — Ibm. 
ch.  56. 

"  If  the  physician  does  not  enjoin  a  proper  regimen — if 
the  patient  deviates  from  his  injunctions." — Beddocs,  Hy- 
geia,  Es.  8. 

"  If  newspapers  are  scurrilous." — Junius,  Let.  16. 

"If  no  circumstances  are  alledged  in  his  favor — if  no  al- 
legation be  [is]  made  to  lessen  the  force  of  evidence." — 
Ibm.  62. 


142  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  If  he  means  Antigonus — if  he  means  Demetrius." — 
Prideaux,  1.  2. 

"  Unless  he  thinks  it  proper  or  prudent  so  to  do." — 
Slacks.  Comment.  1.  3. 

It  is  needless  to  multiply  authorities — they  may  be  cited 
without  end — and  such  is  THE  LANGUAGE. 

The  poets  omit  the  auxiliary  of  the  future  tense,  without 
the  sign  of  contingency — a  license  not  admissible  in  prose. 

"  To-morrow,  ere  fresh  morning  streak  the  east." — Milt. 

That  is,  shall  streak. 

The  auxiliary  is  omitted  also  after  a  command. 

"  Gabriel — hath  given 

Charge  and  strict  watch,  that  to  this  happy  place, 
No  evil  thing  approach  or  enter  in." — Milton. 

To  the  false  rules  of  Grammars,  we  may  ascribe  the  omis- 
sion of  the  personal  terminations  of  verbs  after  till  and  be- 
fore— "  At  the  end  of  which  a  new  shaft  is  sunk,  and  this 
is  done  repeatedly,  till  the  shaft  penetrate  to  the  bottom  of 
the  mine." — Heron's  Fourcroy,  2,  248.  "  The  resounding 
of  the  rock  when  it  is  struck,  warns  the  workmen  before 
this  event  take  place." — Ibm.  249. 

It  has  been  remarked  under  the  head  of  tenses,  that  the 
present  tense  is  properly  used  for  the  future,  after  words 
which  carry  the  mind  forward  to  the  time.  Till  is  a  word 
of  this  sort — its  meaning  is,  to  the  time,  which  has  such  an 
effect  upon  future  time,  that  we  conceive  and  speak  of  it  in 
the  present  tense. 

In  the  first  passage  just  cited,  shall  may  perhaps  be  sup- 
plied— shall  penetrate — which  will  render  the  sentence  tol- 
erable ;  but  it  cannot  be  prefixed  to  take  in  the  second  pas- 
sage, and  the  sentence  appears  not  only  incorrect,  but  ludi- 
crous. The  same  fault  in  Pinkerton's  Geography,  renders 
many  passages  incorrect,  and  some  ridiculous. 

"  Though  the  Mersey  present  a  grand  estuary,  its  course  is 
not  of  great  extent."-;- Pinkerton's  Geography,  v.  1.  Phil.  82. 

"  This  is  not  English  even  upon  Lowth's  principles,  for  he 
lays  it  down  as  a  rule,  that  when  a  fact  is  certain,  admitted, 
or  taken  for  granted,  the  indicative  mode  is  the  most  proper 
1 — and  he  condemns  this  translation — "  Though  he  were  a 
son,  yet  learned  he  obedience."  "  Though  the  Mersey  pre- 
sents," is  the  true  English  idiom. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  143 

"  A  large  river,  which  there  divides  itself  into  three 
branches  before  it  join  the  sea." — Vol.  2.  135. 

"  In  Neged,-  a  young  Arab  cannot  marry  till  he  have  prov- 
ed his  valor."— Ibm.  316. 

Pinkerton's  works  abound  with  similar  mistakes  ;  he  car- 
ries the  false  rules  of  Lowth  to  an  extent  never  intended  by 
the  learned  author.  The  like  errors  abound  in  the  works 
ofPaley.* 

"  Those  who  hold  such  doctrine  must  require  that  a  man 
so  attacked,  must,  before  he  strike  the  assailant,  stop  and 
ascertain  how  the  pistol  is  loaded." — Trial  of  Self  ridge,  p. 
160. 

I  know  not  whether  this  inaccuracy  is  the  fault  of  the 
judge  or  of  the  reporter;  but  strike  cannot  be  considered 
here  as  either  future  or  conditional :  it  expresses  time  in  that 
indeterminate  manner,  which  constitutes  a  principal  office 
of  a  present  tense  of  the  indicative — it  ought  to  be  strikes. 

RULE  XLIV. 

Connectives  join  two  or  more  clauses  or  members  in  a 
compound  sentence ;  as,  "  Keep  thy  tongue  from  evil,  and 
thy  lips  from  speaking  guile." 

Here  are  two  clauses  united  by  and,  which  continues  the 
sense  and  prevents  the  repetition  of  the  verb  keep. 

"  I  sought  the  Lord,  and  he  heard  me,  and  delivered  me 
from  all  my  fears."  Here  are  three  clauses  combined  into 
a  sentence  or  period  by  the  help  of  and ;  but  a  new  verb  is 
introduced  in  each,  and  the  second  connective  prevents  the 
repetition  of  the  substitute  he  only. 

u  A  wise  son  heareth  his  father's  instruction  ;  but  a  scorn- 
er  heareth  not  rebuke."  Here  but  joins  the  two  clauses, 
but  a  new  character  is  the  nominative  to  a  distinct  verb,  in 
the  second  clause,  which  exhibits  a  contrast  to  the  first,  and 
no  word  is  omitted. 


*  From  a  careful  survey  of  the  history  of  our  language,  I  have  ascer- 
tained beyond  any  reasonable  doubt,  that  the  English  Grammars  which 
have  been  published  within  the  last  forty  years,  have  introduced  more 
errors  than  they  have  corrected. 


144  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 


RULE  XLV. 

Connectives  join  single  words,  jvhich  are  the  nominatives 
to  the  same  verb,  expressed  or  understood — or  words  which 
follow  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposition  in  the  same  case. 
Connectives  also  join  verbs,  attributes,  and  modifiers.  Ex- 
amples : 

"  Peter  and  John  went  up  into  the  temple." 

Here  Peter  and  John  are  the  nominatives  to  the  verb,  and 
the  connective  and  prevents  the  repetition  of  the  verb  and 
following  part  of  the  sentence — Peter  went  up  into  the  tem- 
ple. John  went  up  into  the  temple.  I  and  you  will  go  to 
Boston — William  and  Thomas  must  go  to  Washington. 
Neither  I  nor  John  was  present — Peter  or  Henry  will  attend. 
"I  am  the  way  and  the  truth  and  the  life." 

In  the  following,  the  connective  joins  words  which  are 
the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition.  "  The  torch  of  truth 
discovers  malevolence  and  envy."  "  I  have  dispatched  my 
correspondents  with  fair  words  and  general  civility.": — Ram- 
bler. 

I  esteem  him  and  her  and  them — He  loves  us  and  you. 
It  is  for  you  and  me. 

In  the  following,  two  verbs  in  the  same  tense  or  mode 
are  joined  by  a  connective.  "Their  fondness  of  allegory 
dazzled  and  confounded  their  understanding." — Enjield. 
"Plutarch  taught  philosophy  and  was  a  voluminous  writer." 
— Ibm.  "  All  are  of  the  dust  and  turn  to  dust."  "  The  idea 
is  likely  to  sink  deeper  and  spread  the  farther." 

Connectives  join  attributes  and  modifiers ;  as,  "  He  is  wise 
and  virtuous."  "  An  orator  pleads  eloquently  and  plau- 
sibly." 

The  connectives  perform  a  very  important  office  in  abridg- 
ing Janguage,  by  enabling  us  to  omit  words  which  must 
otherwise  be  repeated.  Thus,  when  I  say,  "  I  esteem  re- 
ligion and  virtue,"  two  affirmations,  "  I  esteem  religion,  I 
esteem  virtue,"  are  actually  included  in  the  sentence. 

When  several  words  or  clauses  succeed  each  other,. it  is 
not  uncommon  to  omit  the  connective  ;  as,  "  We  hear  nothing 
of  causing  the  blind  to  see,  the  lame  to  walk,  the  deaf  to 
hear,  the  lepers  to  be  cleansed." — Paley,  Evid. 

After  the  connective  than,  there  may  be  and  usually  is  an 
ellipsis  of  a  verb,  name  or  other  words;  as,  "There  .is 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  145 

none  greater  in  this  house  than  I." — Gen.  39.  9,  that  is,  than 
I  am. 

"  In  the  throne  only  will  I  be  greater  than  thou." — Gen. 
61,  that  is,  than  thou  shalt  be. 

"  He  loves  his  money  more  than  his  honor,"  that  is,  more 
than  he  loves  his  honor. 

"  The  king  of  the  north  shall  return  and  set  forth  a  mul- 
titude greater  than  the  former." — Dan.  11.  13,  that  is,  than 
the  former  multitude. 

"  I  will  pull  down  my  barns  and  build  greater." — Luke 
12,  that  is,  greater  barns. 

Sometimes  other  words  may  be  suppressed  without  ob- 
scuring the  sense,  as,  "  It  is.better  for  me  to  die  than  to  live." 
— Jonah  4.  That  is,  better  than  for  me  to  live. 

Precise  rules  for  the  ellipsis  of  words,  in  all  cases,  cannot 
be  given.  In  general,  a  writer  will  be  governed  by  a  regard 
to  perspicuity,  and  omit  no  word,  when  the  want  of  it  leaves 
the  sense  obscure  or  ambiguous,  nor  when  it  weakens  the 
strength  of  expression.  But  the  following  remarks  and  ex- 
amples may  be  of  use  to  the  student. 

1.  When  a  number  of  words  are  joined  in   construction, 
the   definitive  may  be   omitted,   except   before  the    first;  as, 
the  sun,  moon  and  stars — a  house  and  garden. — So  also  when 
two  or  more  attributes  agree  with  the  same  name  :  as,  a  great, 
wise,  and  good   prince.     But  when  attributes  or  names  are 
particularly  emphatical,  the   definitive   should  be  expressed 
before  each — the  sun,  the  moon  and  the  stars. 

2.  The  repetition  of  names  adds  emphasis  to  ideas  ;  as, 
"  Christ  the  power  of  God  and  the  wisdom  of  God,"  is  more 
emphatical  than  "  Christ  the  power  and  the  wisdom  of  God." 

3  An  adjective  belonging  to  two  or  more  nouns  joined 
by  a  connective,  may  be  omitted  except  before  the  first;  as, 
my  house  and  garden — good  qualities  and  actions — "  their 
interest  and  solicitation" — Rambler,  56.  Nor  does  it  make 
any  difference  that  the  names  are  in  different  numbers ;  as 
our  attributes  have  no  distinction  of  number,  the  same  word 
may  be  applied  to  the  singular  number  and  the  plural ;  as,  a 
magnificent  house  and  gardens — his  house  and  lands.  But 
when  a  precedes  the  first  attribute,  this  construction  is  not 
elegant. 

13 


146  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

4.  In  compound  sentences,  a  nominative  pronoun  or  name 
may  be  omitted  before  all  the  verbs  except  the  first ;  as,  I 
love,  fear  and  respect  the  magistrate — instead  of  I  love,  I 
fear  and  I  respect.     The  substitute  may  sometimes  be  sup- 
pressed ;  as,  the  man  I  saw,  for  the  man  whom  I  saw. 

NOTE. — In  this  particular  of  the  substitute,  authors  often  indulge  an 
unwarrantable  license.  The  use  of  that  for  that  which  is  obsolete  and 
not  justifiable.  "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,"  is  an  original  English 
phrase,  but  has  ceased  to  be  used  by  good  writers. 

The  omission  of  the  substitute  in  phrases  like  this — "  There  was  an 
instance  occurred" — for  ichich  occurred — is  found  in  all  our  good  authors 
— but  it  is  so  gross  a  violation  of  syntax,  without  utility  or  pretext  of  any 
kind,  that  every  writer  should  avoid  it. 

The  verb  may  often  be  omitted ;  as,  he  is  wise  and  virtuous — that  is, 
he  is  wise,  he  is  virtuous.  They  go  to  see  and  be  seen — that  is,  they  go 
to  see,  they  go  to  be  seen. 

After  Ac/ice,  thence  and  whence  a  verb  is  often  omitted  without  occa- 
sioning obscurity  ;  as,  "  Hence  the  flood  of  vice  which  overspreads  the 
land." 

The  auxiliaries  often  supply  the  place  of  a  principal  verb ;  as,  John 
loves  money  better  than  you  do ;  John  has  read  more  books  than  Peter 
has  [read  ;]  John  shall  go,  but  Peter  shall  not  [go.] 

5.  An  adverb  need  not  be  repeated  with  every  word  which 
it  qualifies,  the  connective  and  rendering  it  unnecessary  ;  as, 
he  spoke   and   acted   gracefully.     Here  gracefully    belongs 
to  speaking  as  well  as  to  acting. 

A  preposition  may  be  omitted  after  a  connective ;  as,  he 
walked  over  the  hills  and  the  valleys — that  is,  over  the  valleys. 

After  like  and  near,  to  is  usually  omitted  ;  as,  "  Like  three 
distinct  powers  in  mechanics." — Blacks.  Com.  1.  2.  That 
is,  like  to  three — "  Such  opinions  as  seemed  to  approach 
nearest  the  truth." — Enfield,  2.  59 — that  is,  nearest  to  the 
truth. 

Likewise  after  join  and  adjoin,  to  is  sometimes  omitted ; 
as,  "  a  garden  adjoining  the  river." 

For  is  omitted  by  the  poets  after  mourn. 

"  He  mourn'd  no  recreant  friend,  no  mistress  coy." 

Beattie. 

NOTE  1. — The  common  rule  respecting  connectives  is,  that  they  ioin 
like  modes  and  tenses,  as  well  as  like  cases  ;  or  if  the  tense  or  mode  is 
changed,  the  nominative  to  the  additional  verb  must  be  repeated.  But 
this  is  often  false.  "  He  lives  temperately  and  he  has  long  lived  temper- 
ately," is  an  instance  in  which  the  repetition  of  the  nominative  is  alledg- 
ed  to  be  indispensable.  This  I  apprehend  to  be  a  great  mistake — the 
sentence  is  more  correct,  as  well  as  more  easy  and  familiar,  without  the 
last  nominative.  So  when  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to  the  negative 
or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the  subject  or  nominative  is  said 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  147 

to  be  always  resumed.  This  is  doubtless  an  egregious  error. — "  He  is 
rich,  but  he  is  not  respectable,"  is  not  so  common  a  sentence,  as,  "  He 
is  rich,  but  not  respectable."  The  general  rule  respecting  the  ellipsis, 
is,  that  a  word  may  always  be  suppressed,  when  the  omission  occasions 
no  obscurity  or  ambiguity.  "  He  is  indolent,  and  therefore  will  be 
poor,"  is  perfectly  good  English.  But  let  the  rule  be  put  to  the  test  of 
authorities. 

"  Not  that  he  is  or  ever  was,  obliged  by  these  statutes  to  call  a  new 
parliament  every  year." — Blacks.  Com.  b.  1.  2. 

Is  this  incorrect  ?  No  man  will  pretend  that  this  is  not  an  authorized 
idiom  and  perfectly  correct.  And  how  shall  we  supply  the  ellipsis  ? 
Not  that  he  is  or  he  ever  was  !  What  sort  of  language  is  this  ? 

"  For  when  a  man  says  gold  is  malleable,  he  means  and  would  insin- 
uate something  more  than  this." — Locke,  b.  3.  ch.  10.  17. 

What  necessity  is  there  of  repeating  the  nominative  before  would  ? 
Not  the  least.  It  is  impossible  to  improve  the  perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

"  That  they  have  contributed  and  will  probably  yet  contribute  in  a 
considerable  degree  to  the  abridgment  of  the  labor." — Miller's  Retro- 
spect, Vol.  I.  390. 

"But  whatever  they  were  or  are." — Burke.  Reflections  on  the  Fr. 
Rev.  72. 

"  The  whole  has  been  done  under  the  auspices,  and  is  confirmed  by 
the  sanction,  of  religion  and  piety." — Ibm. 

"  It  has  opened  and  will  more  and  more  open  their  eyes." — Ibm. 

tl  If  I  have  been  born,  or  dwell  or  have  served  an  apprenticeship  in  one 
town."— Paley.  Phil.  b.  6.  7. 

"  He  neither  receives  nor  can  give  delight." — Johnson. 

"  Cowper's  exhortation — is  not  inferior  to  similar  exhortations — in  the 
accomplished  translator  of  Tansillo's  poem,  the  Nurse,  by  which  these 
enchanting  writers  have  induced  and  will  continue  to  induce,  so  many 
mothers,"  &c. — Life  of  Cowper.  Will  any  person  say,  this  latter  sen- 
tence is  not  correct  ?  How  will  the  grammarian  supply  the  nominative  ? 
It  cannot  be  done  without  repeating  a  part  of  the  preceding  clause — by 
which  these  enchanting  writers  have  induced,  and  by  which  they  will 
continue  to  induce — And  of  what  use  is  this  repetition  ?  Does  it  add 
any  thing  to  the  perspicuity  or  elegance  ?  Not  the  least.  Nothing  can 
show,  in  a  stronger  light,  the  falsity  of  the  rule. 

"  The  philosopher  who  hath  busied  himself  in  considering  their  na- 
tures, and  thinks  he  knows  how  far,"  &c. — Locke,  b.  2.  ch.  8.  3. 

Here  a  repetition  of  the  nominative  icho  before  thinks,  would  improve 
the  structure  of  the  sentence,  but  is  by  no  means  indispensable. 

"  These  are  the  fountains  of  knowledge,  from  whence  all  the  ideas 
we  have  or  can  have,  do  spring. — Locke,  2.  1. 

"  I  neither  do  nor  can  comprehend  all  I  would." — Ibm.  2.  17. 

In  the  two  last  examples.  th«  repetition  of  the  nominative,  instead  of 
improving,  would  impair  the  structure  of  the  sentences. 

The  mischiefs  resulting  from  a  vague  manner  of  instituting  Grammar 
rules,  will  be  fully  seen  in  the  perpetual  confusion  of  tenses  which 
occur  in  almost  every  author.  We  are  told  that  conjunctions  connect  like 


148  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

tenses  and  modes — and  whether  is  a  conjunction.  Let  us  see  the  con- 
sequence, "  If  I  should  ask  any  one,  whether  ice  and  water  were  two 
distinct  species  of  things." — Locke,  3.  6.  18. 

To  resolve  this  sentence  by  common  grammars,  we  are  to  say,  that 
should  ask  is  a  verb  in  the  imperfect  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mode, 
whether  is  a  conjunction,  and  were,  a  verb  connected  with  ask  by  that 
conjunction.  And  what  sort  of  language  is  this — "  If  I  should  ask" — a 
contingent  event  or  hypothesis — of  course  the  time  future — "  Whether 
ice  and  water  were,  two  distinct  things,"  that  is,  were,  in  time  past,  and 
perfectly  past ;  for  were  by  itself  never  denotes  time  imperfectly  past  ? 

In  this  way,  the  author  is  led  to  write  what  he  never  intended — sheer 
nonsense.  The  verb  was  intended  to  express  a  fact  of  general  existence 
— one  which  is  always  true  or  false — that  is,  the  identity  or  diversity  of 
ice  and  water — a  fact  existing  in  nature,  and  therefore  to  be  mentioned 
in  the  present  tense  indefinite—"  Whether  ice  and  water  are  two  dis- 
tinct substances." 

"  It  would  seem  that  inquietude  was  as  natural  to  it  as  its  fluidity." — 
Golds,  Jin.  Nat.  ch.  17.  Here  is  a  similar  mistake — the  use  of  the  first 
verb  in  what  is  called  past  time,  leading  the  author  to  use  a  second  verb 
in  the  same  tense — But  that  is  no  connective,  any  more  than  every  sub- 
stitute in  the  language — The  inquietude  of  the  ocean  is  a  natural  prop- 
erty, existing  at  all  times — and  the  author  meant  the  verb  to  express 
that  idea.  "  It  would  seern  that  inquietude  is  as  natural  to  the  sea  as 
its  fluidity."  To  show  this  to  be  the  real  construction,  let  the  order 
of  the  words  be  changed.  "  Inquietude  was  as  natural  to  the  sea  as  its 
fluidity — that  would  seem."  This  arrangement  exhibits  the  mistake  in 
its  true  light.  Let  the  reader  attend  to  the  following  passages. 

"  If  my  readers  will  turn  their  thoughts  back  on  their  old  friends,  they 
will  find  it  difficult  to  call  a  single  man  to  remembrance,  who  appeared 
to  know  that  life  was  short,  [is  short]  till  he  icas  about  to  lose  it." — 
Rambler,  No.  71. 

"  Upon  this  supposition  the  alchimists  icent,  who,  supposing  that — all 
bodies  were  [are]  composed  of  salt,  sulphur  and  mercury." — Encyclop. 
art.  Chimistry,  23. 

"  They  considered  the  body  as  a  hydraulic  machine,  and  the  fluids  as 
passing  through  a  series  of  chimical  changes  ;  forgetting  that  animation 
was  [is]  its  essential  characteristic." — Darwin,  Zoon.  pref. 

"  A  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that  this  was  [is] 
verse." — Murray's  Grammar. 

"  From  the  figure  and  movements  of  the  feathered  tribes,  we  should 
be  led  to  imagine  that  the  structure  of  their  organs  was  [is]  extremely 
different  from  that  of  quadrupeds — their  economy  and  way  of  living 
•required  [require]  some  variations  of  their  frame." — Smeliie,  Phil,  of 
Nat.  Hist.  p.  71. 

"  Supposing  Parliament  had  a  right  to  meet  spontaneously — and  if 
half  of  the  members  met  [should  meet]  and  half  absented  [should  absent] 
themselves,  who  shall  determine  which  is  the  legislative  body  ?" — 
Blacks.  Com.  1.  2. 

"  Two  more  were  stationed  in  Dalmatia,  in  a  situation,  if  a  war  broke 
[should  break]  out  at  their  back,  to  support  the  other  legions  ;  and  if  a 
sudden  emergence  required  [should  require]  their  presence,  ready  to 
advance  by  rapid  marches  into  Italy." — Murphy's  Tacitus,  1.  264. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  149 

The  employment  of  these  verbs  by  the  translator  is  the  less  excusable, 
as  he  had  the  original  to  guide  him  to  the  true  sense — "  QUOB — si  repen- 
tinum  auxilium  Italia  posceret,  haud  procul  accirentur."  If  Italy  should 
require  sudden  aid — the  legions  might  be  called  from  a  small  distance. 

Examples  of  this  mistake  may  be  cited  without  end — but  those  which 
I  have  collected  are  amply  sufficient  to  show  the  miserable  state  of 
grammatical  knowledge.  How  easy  would  it  have  been  to  detect  these 
blunders,  had  the  parts  of  speech  been  understood,  and  properly  classed  1 
Take  for  example,  the  passage  from  Murray — and  resolve  it  according 
to  the  explanation  of  that  which  is  given  in  the  preceding  pages — "  This 
was  verse — a  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that"  What 
nonsense  !  But  correct  the  verb.  "  This  is  verse — a  stranger  would  not 
easily  discover  that"  The  whole  error  has  arisen  probably  from  con- 
sidering that  as  a  conjunction — when  in  fact  it  is  a  representative  of  the 
following  member  of  the  period — and  the  sentence  is  found  to  consist  of 
two  clauses — one  hypothetical,  the  other  declaratory — "  A  stranger  to 
the  poem,  (if  he  should  attempt)  would  not  easily  discover  that — this  is 
verse." 

From  the  practice  of  connecting  like  tenses,  probably  has  arisen  a  sim- 
ilar misapplication  of  tenses,  where  no  connective  is  used  ;  as,  "  In  this 
way  we  might  indicate  which  of  their  elements  existed  [exists]  in  ex- 
cess."— Lavoisier  by  Kerr. 

"  It  would  be  true  gold  to  him  and  belong  to  that  species,  who  include 
malleableness  in  his  nominal  essence." — Locke,  3.  6.  35. 

It  ought  to  be  who  should  include.  A  similar  mistake  in  the  follow- 
ing passage  is  really  ludicrous — "  I  said  to  him  that  he  should  rebuild 
the  Greek  cities  and  give  them  wise  laws,  until  a  proper  time  arrived  to 
restore  them  to  liberty." — Anacharsis,  3.231.  It  ought  to  be  should 
arrive. 

A  few  authors,  led  by  their  own  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  [for  surely 
they  have  had  no  Grammar  to  guide  them,]  have  occasionally  avoided 
these  errors  and  written  the  language  with  correctness.  And  among 
these  is  the  translator  of  Anacharsis,  notwithstanding  the  mistake  just 
cited. 

'  "  They  said  that  man  is  an  animal." — Anach.  vol.  4,  note. 
"  He  told  us  these  birds  are  natives  of  Samos." — Ibm.  ch.  74. 

"  Sabellius,  who  openly  taught  that  there  is  but  one  person  in  the 
Godhead." — Encyc.  art.  Sabellius. 

"  His  matter  had  taught  him  that  happiness  consists  in  virtue." 

Anach.  ch.  7. 

"  D.  Laertius  says,  the  Egyptians  taught  that  matter  is  the  first  prin- 
ciple."— Enfield,  Hist.  Phil.  l,ch.  8. 

"  Anaxagoras  affirmed  that  a  pure  mind  governs  the  universe." 

Jim.  ch.  3.  b.  2. 

If  we  examine  these  sentences,  we  shall  find  ,the  time  correctly, 
affirmed  in  each  member — The  first  declares  a  fact  past — the  last,  a  fact 
now  existing,  as  well  as  when  the  affirmation  was  made. 

"  He  told  us  that  these  birds  are  natives  of  Samos" — or  according  to 
the  idea  before  explained — these  birds  are  natives  of  Samos — he  told  us 
that— 

13  * 


150  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

Man  is  an  animal — they  said  that — happiness  consists  in  virtue — his 
master  taught  him  that. 

I  told  my  brother  that,  if  he  went  [should  go]  to-morrow,  I  would  ac- 
company him. 

How  far  is  it  to  England  ?  three  thousand  miles  ?  Indeed,  I  thought 
it  was  [to  be]  four  thousand. 

What  day  of  the  week  is  it  ?  Monday.  Then  I  mistake  ;  I  thought 
it  was  [to  be]  Tuesday. 

It  rains.  Is  it  best  to  begin  work  in  the  rain  ?  I  should  think  it  was 
not,  [I  should  think  it  not  to  be  best,  or  I  should  think  it  not  best.]  To 
be,  may  be  omitted. 

What  is  the  color  of  the  cloth  ?  I  should  think  it  was  [to  be]  blue. 

I  told  the  man  that  if  he  came  [should  come]  to-morrow,  I  would  con- 
verse with  him. 

It  was  agreed  that  if  the  contract  was  fulfilled  [should  be  fulfilled]  by 
the  tenth  of  next  month,  the  interest  should  be  deducted. 

Let  him  who  is  not  guilty  of  such  mistakes,  cast  the  first  stone !  ! 

I  have  been  the  more  particular  in  illustrating  this  part  of  my  subject, 
to  show  the  necessity  of  tracing  the  idioms  to  their  true  source,  of  under- 
standing the  principles  of  construction,  and  of  calling  the  parts  of  speech 
by  their  true  names. 

Punctuation. 

Punctuation  is  the  marking  of  the  several  pauses  which 
are  to  be  observed,  in  reading  or  speaking  a  sentence  or 
continued  discourse.  By  means  of  pauses,  a  discourse  is  di- 
vided into  periods  or  complete  sentences,  and  these,  into 
phrases. 

A  period  is  a  sentence  complete,  making  perfect  sense, 
and  not  connected  in  construction  with  what  follows.  The 
pause  after  the  period  is  marked  by  a  point  [.]  and  in  speak- 
ing, is  distinguished  by  a  cadence  or  fall  of  the  voice. 

.The  members  of  a  period,  or  clauses  and  phrases,  are  all 
more  or  less  connected  in  sense,  and  according  to  the  near- 
ness of  the  connection,  are  marked  by  a  comma,  [,]  a  semi- 
colon [;]  or  a  colon  [:] 

The  comma  is  the  shortest  pause,  and  is  often  used  to 
mark  the  construction,  where  very  little  interruption  of  voice 
is  allowable. 

A  simple  sentence  or  clause  contains  an  affirmation,  a 
command  or  a  question,  that  is,  one  personal  verb,  with  its 
nominative  and  adjuncts.  By  adjunct,  is  meant  any  phrase 
or  number  of  words  added  by  way  of  modifying  or  qualify- 
ing the  primary  words.  Thus  when  it  is  said,  "  Cicero  was 
an  orator  of  a  diffuse  style"  the  latter  words,  of  a  diffuse 
styk,  are  the  adjunct  of  orator,  and  the  whole  forms  a  com- 
plete simple  sentence,  with  one  verb  or  affirmation. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  151 

A  phrase  contains  no  assertion,  or  does  not  amount  to  a 
proposition. 

COMMA. 

RULE  I.  In  general,  the  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  or 
clause  are  not  to  be  separated  by  any  point  whatever;  as 
"  Hope  is  necessary  in  every  condition  of  life."  But  when 
a  simple  sentence  is  long,  or  contains  a  distinct  phrase  or 
phrases,  modifying  the  affirmation',  it  may  be  divided  by  a 
comma;  as,  "  To  be  very  active  in  laudable  pursuits,  is  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  a  man  of  merit."  "  By  re- 
venging an  injury,  a  man  is  but  even  with  his  enemy."  In 
most  cases,  where  a  short  pause  will  give  distinctness  to 
ideas,  a  comma  is  well  placed  after  an  important  word  ;  "  To 
rnourn  without  measure,  is  folly  ;  not  to  mourn  at  all,  insen- 
sibility." 

The  pause  after  measure,  in  this  sentence,  is  essential  to 
the  strength  of  the  expression.  "  The  idea  of  beauty  is 
vague  and  undefined,  different  in  different  minds,  and  diver- 
sified by  time  or  place." — Rambler. 

RULE  II.  When  a  connective  is  omitted  between  two  or 
more  words,  whether  names,  adjectives,  pronouns,  verbs  or 
modifiers,  the  place  is  supplied  by  a  comma;  as,  "  Love,  joy, 
peace  and  blessedness  are  reserved  for  the  good."  "  The 
miseries  of  poverty,  of  sickness,  of  captivity,  would,  without 
hope,  be  insupportable." — Rambler.  "  We  hear  nothing  of 
causing  the  blind  to  see,  the  lame  to  walk,  the  deaf  to  hear, 
the  lepers  to  be  cleansed." — Paley.  "  He  who  loves,  serves 
and  obeys  his  Maker,  is  a  pious  man."  "  Industry  steadily, 
prudently  and  vigorously  pursued,  leads  to  wealth."  "  Da- 
vid was  a  brave,  martial,  enterprising  prince."  "  The  most 
innocent  pleasures  are  the  most  rational,  the  most  delightful 
and  the  most  durable." 

RULE  III.  Two  or  more  simple  sentences  closely  con- 
nected in  sense,  or  dependent  on  each  other,  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma  only  ;  as,  "When  our  vices  leave  us,  we 
flatter  ourselves  we  leave  them."  "  The  temperate  man's 
pleasures  are  durable,  because  they  are  regular."  "  That 
all  the  duties  of  morality  ought  to  be  practised,  is  without 
difficulty  discoverable,  because  ignorance  or  uncertainty 
would  immediately  involve  the  world  in  confusion  and  dis- 
tress."— Rambler,  81. 


152  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

RULE  IV.  The  sentence  independent  or  case  absolute,  de- 
tached affirmations  or  phrases  involved  in  sentences,  and 
other  important  clauses,  must  be  separated  from  the  other 
parts  of  a  sentence,  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  The  envoy  has  re- 
turned, his  business  being  accomplished. "  "  The  envoy, 
having  accomplished  his  business,  has  returned.7'  "  Provi- 
dence has,  I  think,  displayed  a  tenderness  for  mankind." — 
Rambler.  "  The  decision  of  patronage,  who  was  but  half 
a  goddess,  has  been  sometimes  erroneous." — Rambler.  "  The 
sciences,  after  a  thousand  indignities,  retired  from  the  pal- 
ace of  patronage." — Ibm.  "  It  is,  in  many  cases,  apparent." 
Ibm. 

RULE  V.  A  comma  is  often  required  to  mark  contrast, 
antithesis,  or  remarkable  points  in  a  sentence,  and  sometimes 
very  properly  separates,  words  closely  dependent  in  con- 
struction ;  as,  (t  a  good  man  will  love  himself  too  well  to 
lose,  and  his  neighbor  too  well  to  urin,  an  estate  by  gaming." 
" Prosperity  gains  friends,  and  adversity  tries  them."  "It 
is  harder  to  avoid  censure,  than  to  gain  applause." 

"Though  deep,  yet  clear;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull." 

RULE  VI.  A  single  name  in  apposition  is  not  separated  by 
a  comma;  as,  "the  Apostle  Peter" — but  when  such  name 
is  accompanied  with  an  adjunct,  it  should  be  separated ;  as, 
"  Parmenio,  a  friend  of  Alexander's,  hearing  the  great  offers 
that  Darius  had  made,  said,  '  Were  I  Alexander,  I  would  ac- 
cept them.' "  "  So  would  I,  (replied  Alexander,)  were  I 
Parmenio." 

RULE  VII.  Terms  of  address,  and  words  of  others  re- 
peated, but  not  introduced  as  a  quotation,  are  separated  by 
a  comma ;  as,  "  Wherefore,  sirs,  be  of  good  cheer."  "  My 
son,  hear  the  counsel  of  thy  father."  "  Thus  shalt  thou  say 
to  the  children  of  Israel,  I  AM  hath  sent  me  unto  you." 
Exodus. 

RULE  VIII.  Modifying  words  and  phrases,  as,  however, 
nay,  hence,  besides,  in  short,  finally,  formerly,  &c.  are  usu- 
ally separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  It  is,  however,  the  task  of 
criticism  to  establish  principles." — Rambler. 

SEMICOLON. 

The  semicolon  is  placed  between  the  clauses  of  a  period, 
which  are  less  closely  connected  than  such  as  are  separated 
by  a  comma. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  153 

First.  When  the  first  division  of  a  sentence  completes  a 
proposition,  so  as  to  have  no  dependence  on  what  follows, 
but  the  following  clause  has  a  dependence  on  the  preceding, 
the  two  parts  are  separated  generally  by  a  semicolon ;  as, 
l(  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  maxim,  that  it  is  more  easy  to 
take  away  superfluities  than  to  supply  defects;  and  there- 
fore he  that  is  culpable,  because  he  has  passed  the  middle 
point  of  virtue,  is  always  accounted  a  fairer  object  of  hope, 
than  he  who  fails  by  falling  short." — Rambler.  In  this  sen- 
tence, the  part  of  the  sentence  preceding  the  semicolon,  is  a 
perfect  period  in  itself,  and  might  have  been  closed  with  a 
full  point ;  but  the  author  has  added  another  division,  by 
way  of  inference,  and  this  is  dependent  on  the  first  division. 
The  author  proceeds — "  The  one  has  all  that  perfection  re- 
quires, and  more,  but  the  excess  may  be  easily  retrenched ; 
the  other  wants  the  qualities  requisite  to  excellence."  Here 
the  first  division  makes  a  complete  proposition;  but  the  an- 
tithesis, begun  by  the  numeral  one,  is  not  complete,  without 
the  last  division. 

"  Economy  is  no  disgrace ;  for  it  is  better  to  live  on  a  lit- 
tle, than  to  outlive  a  great  deal." 

"Be  in  peace  with  many;  nevertheless,  have  but  one 
counselor  of  a  thousand." 

"  A  friend  cannot  be  known  in  prosperity ;  an  enemy  can- 
not be  hid  in  adversity." 

In  general  then,  the  semicolon  separates  the  divisions  of 
a  sentence,  when  the  latter  division  has  a  dependence  on 
the  former,  whether  the  former  has  a  dependence  on  the  lat- 
ter or  not. 

Secondly.  When  several  members  of  a  sentence  have  a 
dependence  on  each  other,  by  means  of  a  substitute  for  the 
same  principal  word,  and  the  clauses,  in  other  respects,  con- 
stitute distinct  propositions,  the  semicolon  may  be  used ;  as, 
"  Wisdom  hath  builded  her  house ;  she  hath  hewn  out  her 
seven  pillars ;  she  hath  killed  her  beasts ;  she  hath  mingled- 
her  wine ;  she  hath  also  furnished  her  table." — Prov.  9. 

COLON. 

The  colon  is  used  when  the  sense  of  the  division  of  a  pe- 
riod is  complete,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  full  point,  but  some- 
thing is  added  by  way  of  illustration ;  as,  "  A  brute  arrives 


154  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

at  a  point  of  perfection  that  he  can  never  pass  :  in  a  few 
years  he  has  all  the  endowments  he  is  capable  of;  and  were 
he  to  live  ten  thousand  more,  would  be  the  same  thing  he  is 
at  present." — Sped.  No.  111. 

NOTE. — This  point  is  of  little  use  ;  the  difference  between  the  colon 
and  semicolon  is  so  small,  that  the  two  pauses  are  frequently  confounded, 
as  may  be  seen  in  our  present  version  of  the  Proverbs.  It  is  said  that  a 
colon  should  be  placed  before  a  quotation  ;  but  I  consider  the  use  of  the 
semicolon  as  preferable.  I  conceive  the  colon  might  be  rejected  without 
injury  to  the  perspicuity  of  sentences  ;  and  punctuation  very  much  sim- 
plified by  substituting  the  semicolon  and  the  full  point.  That  slight  de- 
pendence of  a  subsequent  sentence  upon  a  preceding  one,  which  is  mark- 
ed by  a  colon,  is  also  marked  by  the  full  point ;  for  we  are  not  to  sup- 
pose a  full  point  precludes  a  connection  between  sentences.  Let  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  from  the  Rambler,  No.  31,  be  cited  as  an  example. 

"  With  the  great  and  ambitious,  I  would  discourse  of  honors  and  ad- 
vancements. To  the  rich  I  would  tell  of  inexhaustible  treasures  and  the 
sure  method  to  attain  them.  I  would  teach  them  to  put  out  their  money 
on  the  best  interest,  and  instruct  the  lovers  of  pleasure  how  to  secure 
and  improve  it  to  the  highest  degree.  The  beauty  should  learn  of  me 
how  to  preserve  an  everlasting  bloom.  To  the  afflicted  I  would  admin- 
ister comfort,  and  relaxation  to  the  busy." 

All  the  parts  of  a  continued  discourse  are  connected  ;  and  often  by  such 
nice  grades  of  dependence,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  discern,  much  less  to 
mark  the  minute  distinctions.  I  have  never  examined  any  author, 
whose  use  of  the  points  is  either  accurate  or  uniform  ;  and  in  particular 
the  colon  is  every  where  confounded  with  the  semicolon  or  the  period. 

PERIOD. 

The  period  or  full  point  marks  a  completion  of  the  sense, 
a  cadence  of  the  voice,  and  the  longest  pause  used  between 
sentences.  It  closes  a  discourse  also,  or  marks  the  comple- 
tion of  a  subject,  chapter  or  section. 

The  full  point  is  used  also  after  initials  when  used  alone ; 
as,  after  N.  S.  for  New  Style ;  and  after  abbreviations ;  as, 
Croc.  Anglic,  for  Crocus  Anglicanus. 

To  these  may  be  added, 

The  dash  —  which  marks  a  break  in  the  sentence,  or  an  ab- 
rupt turn  ;  as,  "  If  thou  art  he — but  O  how  fallen  !" 

The  interrogation  point  ?  that  closes  a  sentence  which 
asks  a  question  ;  as,  "  How  long,  ye  simple  ones,  will  ye 
love  simplicity  ?" 

The  exclamation  point  !  which  is  used  after  sudden  ex- 
pressions of  surprise,  or  other  emotion;  as,  "O  happiness! 
our  being's  end  and  aim  !" 

The  parenthesis  (  )  and  hooks  [  ]  include  a  remark  or 
clause,  not  essential  to  the  sentence  in  construction,  but  use 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  155 

ful  in  explaining  it  or  introducing  an  important  idea.  They 
mark  a  moderate  pause,  and  the  clause  included  is  read  with 
a  depressed  tone  of  voice  ;  as, 

"  Know  then  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." — Pope. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  sentence  is  not  at  all  de- 
pendent on  the  parenthetical  clause  ;  but  the  converse  is  not 
true,  for  that  clause  has  a  dependence  more  or  less  remote, 
on  the  sentence.  Thus,  enough  for  man  to  know,  is  not  in- 
telligible without  connecting  it  with  the  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence preceding  and  following.  So  in  this  passage ;  "  If 
any  one  pretends  to  be  so  sceptical,  as  to  deny  his  own  ex- 
istence, (for  really  to  doubt  of  it,  is  manifestly  impossible,) 
let  him  enjoy  his  beloved  happiness." — Locke,  4,  10,  2.  The 
included  clause  here  is  connected  with  the  preceding  part  of 
the  sentence,  and  it  is  a  substitute  for  existence. 

With  regard  to  the  duration  of  the  pauses,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  and  full  point,  may 
bear  to  each  other  the  proportion  of  one,  two,  three,  four, 
and  the  interrogation  point  and  exclamation  point  may  be 
considered  each  as  equal  in  time  to  the  colon  or  period. 
But  no  precise  rule  can  be  given,  which  shall  extend  to 
every  case ;  the  le'ngth  of  the  pauses  must  depend  much  on 
the  nature  of  the  discourse,  and  their  respective  proportions 
may  be  often  varied  to  advantage  by  a  judicious  speaker. 

Prosody  * 

PROSODY  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the 
pronunciation  of  words,  and  the  laws  of  versification. 

Pronunciation  is  regulated  principally  by  accent  and 
quantity. 

Accent  is  a  particular  stress  of  voice  with  which  a  certain 
syllable  of  a  word  is  uttered,  and  by  which  it  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  others.  Thus,  in  pronouncing  .probability,  we 
lay  a  greater  stress  of  voice  upon  the  third  syllable,  than 

*  The  substance  of  the  remarks  under  this  head  was  published  more 
than  forty  years  ago.  For  some  of  the  observations  I  am  indebted  to 
Sheridan's  Art  of  Reading;  but  for  more  of  them,  to  the  Honorable 
John  Trumbull,  Esq.  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Con- 
necticut. His  rules  of  metrical  composition,  originally  published  in  my 
Grammar,  and  afterwards  in  my  Dissertations  on  the  English  Language, 
are  probably  the  best  that  have  been  written. 


156  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

upon  -  the  others — the  voice  naturally  resting  upon  that,  and 
passing  over  the  others  with  rapidity  and  a  slight  enuncia- 
tion. This  stress  of  voice  on  a  particular  part  of  a  word, 
is  equally  necessary  to  the  ease  of  utterance  and  the  melody 
of  speaking. 

In  addition  to  the  accent,  which  may  be  called  primary, 
there  is,  in  pronouncing  words  of  many  syllables,  a  secon- 
dary accent,  less  distinct  than  the  principal  accent,  but  evi- 
dently distinguishing  some  one  syllable,  from  those  which 
are  unaccented.  Thus  in  the  word  indiscriminate,  the  prin- 
cipal accent  is  on  the  third  syllable ;  but  the  first  syllable  is 
evidently  uttered  with  more  force  of  voice,  than  the  second 
and  last  two  syllables.  The  final  cause  of  both  accents  is 
the  ease  of  pronunciation,  and  by  this  should  both  be  regu- 
lated ;  for  that  manner  of  pronouncing  words  which  is  most 
easy  for  the  speaker,  enables  him  to  utter  the  several  sylla- 
bles with  the  most  distinctness,  which  is  consistent  with  a 
rapid  communication  of  thoughts;  and  this  is  necessary  to 
render  his  enunciation  agreeable  to  his  hearers.  Hence  no 
rules  of  pronunciation  drawn  from  the  termination  of  words, 
from  their  etymologies,  or  from  the  practice  of  popular 
speakers,  should  be  suffered  to  interfere  with  this  funda- 
mental principle,  the  ease  of  utterance — for  a  forced,  un- 
natural accent  is  not  only  painful  to  the  speaker,  but  utterly 
destructive  of  melody. 

The  accent  may  fall  on  a  vowel  or  on  a  consonant. 
When  it  falls  on  a  vowel,  the  vowel  is  long ;  as  in  glory, 
table,  lawful.  When  it  falls  on  a  consonant,  the  consonant 
closes  the  syllable,  and  the  preceding  vowel  is  short;  as  in 
hab'it,  grat'itude,  deliverance.* 

*  It  may  be  thought  that  I  am  captious  in  criticising  the  works  of 
English  authors,  or  of  others  who  have  written  on  this  subject,  but  the 
propriety  of  detecting  error,  wherever  found,  supersedes  the  necessity 
of  apology. 

It  has  been  the  practice  of  most  English  authors  to  place  the  marks 
of  accent,  in  all  cases,  over  the  vowel  of  the  accented  syllable — a  prac- 
tice probably  borrowed  from  the  Greek  language.  Thus  in  Johnson's 
Dictionary,  the  vowel  a  in  habit,  as  well  as  o  in  hdly,  has  the  mark  of 
accent,  for  which  reason  the  mark  is  no  guide  to  the  true  sound  of  the 
letter,  and  a  learner  would  be  led  to  give  to  a  its  long  sound  thus,  habit 
— as  well  as  to  o  its  long  sound  in  holy. 

But  this  is  not  the  worst  evil.  The  usual  rules  for  dividing  syllables, 
are  not  only  arbitrary,  but  false  and  absurd.  They  contradict  the  very 
definition  of  a  syllable  given  by  the  authors  themselves.  Thus  Lowth 
defines  a  syllable  to  be  "  a  sound,  either  simple  or  compound,  pronounced 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  157 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  time  in  which  it  is  pro- 
nounced. In  English  this  time  is  long  or  short — long,  as  in 
frame,  denote,  compensation — short,  as  in  that,  not,  melon. 

The  accent  has  no  small  influence  in  determining  the 
length  of  a  syllable,  by  prolonging  the  sound  of  the  vowel ; 
but,  in  many  words,  vowels  have  their  long  sound,  though 
not  under  the  accent ;  as,  nosegay,  agitate. 

There  are  some  general  rules  for  accenting  syllables, 
which  may  be  discovered  by  attending  to  the  analogy  of 
formation.  Thus  words  ending  in  tion  and  sion  have  the 
accent  on  the  last  syllable  save  one ;  as  protection,  adhesion : 
words  ending  in  ty  usually  have  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable 
except  two  ;  as,  vanity,  hostility. 

Few  of  these  rules  however  are  so  general,  that  the  ex- 
ceptions to  them  are  not  almost  as  numerous  as  the  words 
which  fall  within  the  rule ;  and  therefore  the  accent  of  words 
is  best  learnt  from  a  dictionary  and  general  usage.  The 
rules  laid  down  for  this  purpose  in  several  works  of  distinc- 
tion, are  so  numerous,  and  subject  to  so  many  exceptions, 
that  they  tend  rather  to  embarrass,  than  to  assist  the  student. 

Most  prosodians  who  have  treated  particularly  of  this 
subject,  have  been  guilty  of  a  fundamental  error,  in  consid- 
ering the  movement  of  English  verse  as  depending  on  long 
and  short  syllables,  formed  by  long  and  short  vowels.  This 
hypothesis  has  led  them  into  capital  mistakes.  The  truth 
is,  many  of  those  syllables  which  are  considered  as  long  in 
verse,  are  formed  by  the  shortest  vowels  in  the  language ; 
as,  strength,  health,  grand.  The  doctrine,  that  long  vowels 
are  necessary  to  form  long  syllables  in  poetry,  is  at  length 


by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice,  and  constituting  a  word  or  part  of 
a  word."  But  in  dividing  syllables,  no  regard  is  had  to  the  definition — 
for  manifest  Lowth  divides  thus,  ma-ni-fest.  Here,  the  first  syllable 
man  is  pronounced  with  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice — according  to  the 
definition  ;  yet  in  writing,  the  syllable  is  split — the  constituent  part  of  a 
word  is  divided  into  two  parts — that  which  is  to  be  pronounced  with  a 
single  impulse  of  the  voice,  is  so  separated,  as  to  require  two  impulses. 
A  syllable  in  pronunciation  is  an  indivisible  thing ;  and  strange  as  it 
may  appear,  what  is  indivisible  in  utterance,  is  divided  in  writing; 
v/hen  the  very  purpose  of  dividing  words  into  syllables  in  writing,  is  to 
lead  the  learner  to  a  just  pronunciation.  Thus  Murray,  though  he  ad- 
mits that"  a  syllable  is  short  when  the  accent  is  on  the  consonant," yet 
separates  that  consonant  from  the  syllable — as  in  me- Ion — ci-vil — ti-mid. 
Most  of  the  English  elementary  books  which  I  have  seen  are  liable  to 
the  same  objection. 
14 


158  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

exploded,  and  the  principles  which  regulate  the  movement 
of  our  verse,  are  explained;  viz.  accent  and  emphasis. 
Every  emphatical  word,  and  every  accented  syllable,  will 
form  what  is  called  in  prose  a  long  syllable.  The  unaccented 
syllables,  and  unemphatical  monosyllabic  words,  are  consid- 
ered as  short  syllables. 

But  there  are  two  kinds  of  emphasis ;  a  natural  emphasis, 
which  arises  from  the  importance  of  the  idea  conveyed  by  a 
word;  and  an  accidental  emphasis,  which  arises  from  the 
importance  of  a  word  in  a  particular  situation. 

The  first  or  natural  emphasis  belongs  to  all  nouns,  verbs, 
participles  and  adjectives,  and  requires  no  elevation  of  the 
voice ;  as, 

"Not  half  so  swift  the  trembling  doves  can^/y." 

The  last  or  accidental  emphasis  is  laid  on  a  word  when  it 
has  some  particular  meaning,  and  when  the  force  of  a  sen- 
tence depends  upon  it ;  this  therefore  requires  an  elevation 
of  the  voice ;  as, 

"Perdition  catch  my  soul — but  I  do  love  thee." 

So  far  the  prosody  of  the  English  language  seems  to  be 
settled ;  but  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  construction  of  verse, 
seem  to  have  been  imperfect  and  disputed. 

Writers  have  generally  supposed  that  our  heroic  verse 
consists  of  five  feet,  all  pure  Iambics,  except  the  first  foot, 
which  they  allow  may  be  a  Trochee.  In  consequence  of 
this  opinion,  they  have  expunged  letters  from  words  which 
were  necessary ;  and  curtailed  feet  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
disfigure  the  beauty  of  printing,  and  in  many  instances,  de- 
stroyed the  harmony  of  our  best  poetry. 

The  truth  is,  so  far  is  our  heroic  verse  from  being  con- 
fined to  the  Iambic  measure,  that  it  admits  of  eight  feet,  and 
in  some  instances  of  nine.  I  will  not  perplex  my  readers 
with  a  number  of  hard  names,  but  proceed  to  explain  the 
several  feet,  and  show  in  what  places  of  the  line  they  are 
admissible. 

An  Iambic  foot,  which  is  the  ground  of  English  numbers, 
consists  of  two  syllables,  the  first  short  and  the  second  long. 
This  foot  is  admitted  into  every  place  of  the  line.  Example, 
all  Iambics ; 

"  Where  slaves  once  more  theft  native  land  behold, 
No  fiends  torment,  no  Christians  thirst  for  gold." 

Pope. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  159 

The  Trochee  is  a  foot  consisting  of  two  syllables,  the  first 

long  and  the  second  short.     Example ; 

"  Warms  in  the  sun,  refreshes  in  the  breeze, 

Glows  in  the  stars,  and  blossoms  in  the  trees.'          Pope. 
The  Trochee  is  not  admissible  into  the  second  place  of  the 

line ;  but  in  the  third  and  fourth  it  may  have  beauty,  when  it 

creates  a  correspondence  between  the  sound  and  sense. 
"  Eve  rightly  call'd  mother  of  all  mankind." 
"  And  staggered  by  the  stroke,  drops  the  large  ox." 
The  Spondee  is  a  foot  consisting  of  two  long   syllables. 

This  may  be  used  in  any  place  of  the  line. 

1.  "  Good  life  be  now  my  task,  my  doubts  are  done." 

Dryden. 

2.  "  As  some  lone  mountain's  monstrous  growth  he  stood." 

Pope. 

But  it  ha*s  a  greater  beauty  when  preceded  by  a  Trochee. 
"Load  the  tall  bark  and  lanch  into  the  main." 

3.  "The  mountain  goats  came  bounding  o'er  the  lawn." 

4.  "  He  spoke,  and  speaking  in  proud  triumph  spread 

The  long  contended  honors  of  her  head."  Pope. 

5.  "  Singed  are  his  brows,  the  scorching  lids  grow  black." 

Pope. 

The  Pyrrhic  is  a  foot  of  two  short  syllables ;  it  is  grace- 
ful in  the  first  and  fourth  places,  and  is  admissible  into  the 
second  and  third. 

1.  "  Nor  in  the  helpless  orphan  dread  a  foe."  Pope. 

2.  «  On  they  move, 

Indisso/wbly  firm." Milton. 

3.  "  The  two  extremes  appear  like  man  and  wife, 

Coupled  together  for  the  sake  of  strife."      Churchill. 
But  this  foot  is  most  graceful  in  the  fourth  place. 
"The  dying  gales  that  pant  upon  the  trees." 
"  To  farthest  shores  the  ambrosial  spirit  flies, 

Sweet  to  the  world  and  grateful  to  the  skies." 
The  Amphibrach  is  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  the  first  and 
third  short,  and  the  second  long.     It  is  used  in  heroic  verse 
only  when  we  take  the  liberty  to  add  a  short  syllable  to  a  line. 
"  The  piece  you  say  is  incorrect,  why  take  ity 
I'm  all  submission,  what  you'd  have  it,  make  it." 


160  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

This  foot  is  hardly  admissible  in  the  solemn  or  sublime 
style.  Pope  has  indeed  admitted  it  into  his  Essay  on  Man. 

"  What  can  ennoble  sots  or  slaves  or  cowards  ? 
Alas !  not  all  the  blood  of  all  the  Howards." 
Again ; 

"  To  sigh  for  ribands,  if  thou  art  so  silly  ; 
Mark  how  they  grace  Lord  Umbra  or  Sir  Billy." 

But  these  lines  are  of  the  high  burlesque  kind,  and  in  this 
style  the  Amphibrach  closes  lines  with  great  beauty. 

The  Tribrach  is  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  all  short ;  and 
it  may  be  used  in  the  third  and  fourth  places. 

"  And  rolls  impetuous  to  the  plain." 
Or  thus ; 

"  And  thunders  down  impetuous  to  the  plain." 

The  Dactyl,  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  the  first  long  and 
the  two  last  short,  is  used  principally  in  the  first  place  in  the 
line. 

"  Furious  he  spoke,  the  angry  chief  replied." 

"  Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night." 

The  Ariapest,  a  foot  consisting  of  three  syllables,  the  two 
first  short  and  the  last  long,  is  admissible  into  every  place  of 
the  line. 

"  Can  a  bosom  so  gentle  remain 
Unmoved  when  her  Corydon  sighs? 
Will  a  nymph  that  is  fond  of  the  plains, 
These  plains  and  these  valleys  despise  ! 
Dear  regions  of  silence  and  shade, 
Soft  scenes  of  contentment  and  ease, 
Where  I  could  have  pleasantly  stay'd, 
If  aught  in  her  absence  could  please." 
The    trisyllabic    feet  have  suffered   most  by  the    general 
ignorance  of  critics ;  most  of  them  have  been  mutilated  by 
apostrophies,  in  order  to  reduce  them  to  the  Iambic  measure. 
Thus  in  the  line  before  repeated, 

"  Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night," 
we  find   the  word    in    the    copy  reduced   to   two   syllables, 
murm'ring,  and  the  beauty  of  the  Dactyl  is  destroyed. 
Thus  in  the  following, 
"  On  every  side  with  shadowy  squadrons  deep/* 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  161 

by  apostrophizing  every  and  shadowy,  the  line  loses  its  har- 
mony.    The  same  remark  applies  to  the  following. 

"  And  hosts  infuriate  shake  the  shudd'ring  plain." 
"  But  fashion  so  directs,  and  moderns  raise 
On  fashion's  mouldering  base,  their  transient  praise/' 

Churchill. 

Poetic  lines  which  abound  with  these  trisyllabic  feet,  are 
the  most  flowing  and  melodious  of  any  in  the  language ;  and 
yet  the  poets  themselves,  or  their  printers,  murder  them  with 
numberless  unnecessary  contractions. 

It  requires  but  little  judgment  and  an  ear  indifferently  ac- 
curate, to  distinguish  the  contractions  which  are  necessary, 
from  those  which  are  needless  and  injurious  to  the  versifica- 
tion. In  the  following  passage  we  find  examples  of  both. 

"  She  went  from  op'ra,  park,  assembly,  play, 
To  morning  walks  and  prayers,  three  times  a  day ; 
To  pass  her  time  'twixt  reading  and  bohea, 
To  muse  and  spill  her  solitary  tea ; 
Or  o'er  cold  coffee  trifle  with  the  spoon, 
Count  the  slow  clock,  and  dine  exact  at  noon ; 
Divert  her  eyes  with  pictures  in  the  fire, 
Hum  half  a  tune,  tell  stories  to  the  'squire ; 
Up  to  her  godly  garret  after  sev'n, 
There  starve  and  pray,  for  that's  the  way  to  heav'n." 

Pope's  Epistles. 

Here  e  in  opera  ought  not  to  be  apostrophized,  for  such  a 
contraction  reduces  an  Amphibrachic  foot  to  an  Iambic. 
The  words  prayers,  seven  and  heaven  need  not  the  apostro- 
phe of  e ;  for  it  makes  no  difference  in  the  pronunciation. 
But  the  contraction  of  over  and  betwixt  is  necessary ;  for 
without  it  the  measure  would  be  imperfect. 

PAUSES. 

Having  explained  the  several  kinds  of  feet,  and  shown  in 
what  places  of  a  verse  they  may  be  used,  I  proceed  to  an- 
other important  article,  the  pauses.  Of  these  there  are  two 
kinds — the  cesural  pause,  which  divides  the  line  into  two 
equal  or  unequal  parts ;  and  the  final  pause,  which  closes 
the  verse.  These  pauses  are  called  musical,  because  their 
sole  end  is  melody  of  verse. 
14* 


162  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

The  pauses  which  mark  the  sense,  and  for  this  reason  are 
denominated  sentential,  are  the  same  in  verse  as  in  prose. 
They  are  marked  by  the  usual  stops,  a  comma,  a  semicolon, 
a  colon  or  a  period,  as  the  sense  requires,  and  need  no  par- 
ticular explanation. 

The  cesural  pause  is  not  essential  to  verse,  for  the  shorter 
kinds  of  measure  are  without  it ;  but  it  improves  both  the 
melody  and  the  harmony. 

Melody  in  music  is  derived  from  a  succession  of  sounds ; 
harmony  from  different  sounds  in  concord.  A  single  voice 
can  produce  melody  ;  a  union  of  voices  is  necessary  to  form 
harmony.  In  this  sense  harmony  cannot  be  applied  to 
verse,  because  poetry  is  recited  by  a  single  voice.  But  har- 
mony may  be  used  in  a  figurative  sense,  to  express  the 
effect  produced  by  observing  the  proportion  which  the  mem- 
bers of  verse  bear  to  each  other.* 

The  eesural  pause  may  be  placed  in  any  part  of  the  verse ; 
but  has  the  finest  effect  upon  the  melody,  when  placed  after 
the  second  or  third  foot,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third. 
After  the  second ; 

"In  what  retreat,  inglorious  and  unknown, 

Did  genius  sleep,  when  dullness  seiz'd  the  throne  ?" 
After  the  third ; 

"  O  say  what  stranger  cause,  yet  unexplored. 

Could  make  a  gentle  belle  reject  a  lord  ?" 
In  the  middle  of  the  third ; 

"  Great  are  his  perils,  in  this  stormy  time, 
Who  rashly  ventures,  on  a  sea  of  rhyme." 

In  these  examples  we  find  a  great  degree  of  melody,  but 
not  in  all  the  same  degree.  In  comparing  the  divisions  of 
verse,  we  experience  the  most  pleasure  in  viewing  those 
which  are  equal ;  hence  those  verses  which  have  the  pause 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot,  which  is  the  middle  of  the 
verse,  are  the  most  melodious.  Such  is  the  third  example 
above. 

In  lines  where  the  pause  is  placed  after  the  second  foot, 
we  perceive  a  smaller  degree  of  melody,  for  the  divisions 
are  not  equal ;  one  containing  four  syllables,  the  other  six, 
as  in  the  first  example. 


Sheridan's  Art  of  Reading. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  163 

But  the  melody  in  this  example,  is  much  superior  to  that 
of  the  verses  which  have  the  cesural  pause  after  the  third  foot ; 
for  this  obvious  reason  :  When  the  pause  bounds  the  second 
foot,  the  latter  part  of  the  verse  is  the  greatest,  and  leaves 
the  most  forcible  impression  upon  the  mind  ;  but  when  the 
pause  is  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot,  the  order  is  reversed. 
We  are  fond  of  proceeding  from  small  to  great,  and  a  cli- 
max in  sound  pleases  the  ear,  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
climax  in  sense  delights  the  mind.  Such  is  the  first  ex- 
ample. 

It  must  be  observed  further,  that  when  the  cesural  pause 
falls  after  the  second  and  third  feet,  both  the  final  and 
cesural  pauses  are  on  accented  syllables;  whereas,  when  the 
cesural  pause  falls  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot,  this  is  on  a 
weak  syllable,  and  the  final  pause  on  an  accented  syllable. 
This  variety  in  the  latter,  is  another  cause  of  the  superior 
pleasure  we  derive  from  verses  divided  into  equal  portions. 

The  pause  may  fall  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  foot ;  as, 

"  Let  favor  speak  for  others,  worth  for  me  :M 

but  the  melody,  in  this  case,  is  almost  lost.     At  the  close  of 
the  first  foot,  the  pause  has  a  more  agreeable  effect. 

"  That's  vile  ;    should  we  a  parent's  fault  adore, 
And  err,  because  our  fathers  err'd  before?" 

In  the  middle  of  the  second  foot,  the  pause  may  be  used, 
but  produces  little  melody. 

"  And  who  but  wishes  to  invert  the  laws 
Of  order,  sins  against  the  eternal  cause." 

Harmony  is  produced  by  a  proportion  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  same  verse,  or  between  the  members  of  differ- 
ent verses.  Example ; 

"  Thy  forests,  Windsor,  and  thy  green  retreats, 
At  once  the  monarch's  and  the  muse's  seats, 
Invite  my  lays.    Be  present,  sylvan  maids, 
Unlock  your  springs,  and  open  all  your  shades." 

Here  we  observe,  the  pause  in  the  first  couplet  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  foot ;  both  verses  are  in  this  respect  sim- 
ilar. In  the  last  couplet,  the  pause  falls  after  the  second 
foot.  In  each  couplet,  separately  considered,  there  is  a  uni- 
formity ;  but  when  one  is  compared  with  the  other,  there  is 


164  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR 

a  diversity.  This  variety  produces  a  pleasing  effect*  The 
variety  is  further  increased,  when  the  first  lines  of  several 
succeeding  couplets  are  uniform  as  to  themselves,  and  dif- 
ferent from  the  last  lines,  which  are  also  uniform  as  to  them- 
selves. Churchill,  speaking  of  reason,  lord  chief  justice  in 
the  court  of  man,  has  the  following  lines; 

"  Equally  form'd  to  rule,  in  age  or  youth, 
The  friend  of  virtue,  and  the  guide  to  truth ; 
To  her  I  bow,  whose  sacred  power  I  feel, 
To  her  decision  make  my  last  appeal ; 
Condemn'd  by  her,  applauding  words  in  vain 
Should  tempt  me  to  take  up  my  pen  again  ; 
By  her  absolv'd,  the  course  I'll  still  pursue ; 
'  If  Reason's  for  me,  God  is  for  me  too.' J; 

The  first  line  of  three  of  these  couplets,  has  the  pause 
after  the  second  foot ;  in  this  consists  their  similarity.  The 
last  line  in  three  of  them,  has  the  pause  in  the  middle  of  the 
third  foot ;  they  are  uniform  as  to  themselves,  but  different 
from  the  foregoing  lines.  This  passage,  which  on  the  whole 
is  very  beautiful,  suffers  much  by  the  sixth  line,  which  is  not 
verse,  but  rather  hobbling  prose. t 

The  foregoing  remarks  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  use 
and  advantages  of  the  cesural  pause. 

The  final  pause  marks  the  close  of  a  line  or  verse,  wheth- 
er there  is  a  pause  in  the  sense  or  not.  Sentential  pauses 
should  be  marked  by  a  variation  of  tone ;  but  the  final  pause, 
when  the  close  of  one  line  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
beginning  of  the  next,  should  be  merely  a  Suspension  of  the 
voice  without  elevation  or  depression.  Thus ; 

"  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe,"  &c. 


*  Sheridan. 

t  Churchill  has  improved  English  versification,  but  is  sometimes  too  in- 
correct. It  is  the  remark  of  some  writer,  "  That  the  greatest  geniuses 
are  seldom  correct,"  and  the  remark  is  not  without  foundation.  Homer, 
Shakspeare  and  Milton,  were  among  the  greatest  geniuses  that  ever  liv- 
ed, and  they  were  certainly  guilty  of  the  greatest  faults.  Virgil  and 
Pope  were  much  inferior  in  point  of  genius,  but  excelled  in  accuracy. 
Churchill  had  genius,  but  his  contempt  of  rules  made  him  sometimes 
indulge  a  too  great  latitude  of  expression. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  165 

When  these  lines  are  read  without  a  pause  after  the  words 
fruit  and  taste,  they  degenerate  into  prose.  Indeed  in  many 
instances,  particularly  in  blank  verse,  the  final  pause  is  the 
only  circumstance  which  distinguishes  verse  from  prose. 

EXPRESSION. 

One  article  more  in  the  construction  of  verse  deserves 
our  observation,  which  is  Expression.  Expression  consists 
in  such  a  choice  and  distribution  of  poetic  feet  as  are  best 
adapted  to  the  subject,  and  best  calculated  to  impress  senti- 
ments upon  the  mind.  Those  poetic  feet,  which  end  in  an 
accented  syllable,  are  the  most  forcible.  Hence  the  Iambic 
measure  is  best  adapted  to  solemn  and  sublime  subjects. 
This  is  the  measure  of  the  Epic,  of  poems  on  grave  moral 
subjects,  of  elegies,  &c.  The  Spondee,  a  foot  of  two  long 
syllables,  when  admitted  into  the  Iambic  measure,  adds 
much  to  the  solemnity  of  the  movement. 

"  While  the  clear  sun,  rejoicing  still  to  rise, 
In  pomp  rolls  round  immeasurable  skies/'        Dwight. 

The  Dactyl,  rolls  round,  expresses  beautifully  the  majes- 
ty of  the  sun  in  his  course. 

It  is  a  general  rule,  that  the  more  important  syllables 
there  are  in  a  passage,  whether  of  prose  or  verse,  the  more 
heavy  is  the  style.  For  example  ; 

"  A  past,  vamp'd,  future,  old,  reviv'd  new  piece." 

"  Men  bearded,  bald,  cowl'd,  uncowl'd,  shod,  unshod." 

Such  lines  are  destitute  of  melody,  and  are  admissible 
only  when  they  suit  the  sound  to  the  sense.  In  the  high 
burlesque  style,  of  which  kind  is  Pope's  Dunciad,  they  give 
the  sentiment  an  ironical  air  of  importance,  and  from  this 
circumstance  derive  a  beauty.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large 
proportion  of  unaccented  syllables  or  particles,  deprives  lan- 
guage of  energy ;  and  it  is  this  circumstance  principally 
which  in  prose  constitutes  the  difference  between  the  grave 
historical,  and  the  familiar  style.  The  greatest  number  of 
long  syllables  ever  admitted  into  a  heroic  verse  is  seven,  as 
in  the  foregoing ;  the  smallest  number  is  three 

"  Or  to  a  sad  variety  of  woe." 

The  Trochaic  measure,  in  which  every  foot  closes  with  a 
weak  syllable,  is  well  calculated  for  lively  subjects. 


166  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

"  Softly  sweet  in  Lydian  measures 
Soon  he  sooth'd  his  soul  to  pleasures ; 
War  he  sung  is  toil  and  trouble, 
Honor  but  an  empty  bubble,"  &c. 

The  Anapestic  measure,  in  which  there  are  two  short  syl- 
lables to  one  long,  is  best  adapted  to  express  the  impetuosity 
of  passion  or  action.  Shenstone  has  used  it  to  great  advan- 
tage in  his  inimitable  pastoral  ballad.  It  describes  beauti- 
fully the  strong  and  lively  emotions  which  agitate  the  lover, 
and  his  anxiety  to  please,  which  continually  hurries  him 
from  one  object  and  one  exertion  to  another. 
"  I  have  found  out  a  gift  for  my  fair, 

I  have  found  where  the  wood  pigeons  breed ; 

Yet  let  me  that  plunder  forbear, 

She  will  say  'twas  a  barbarous  deed. 

For  he  ne'er  could  prove  true,  she  averr'd, 

Who  could  rob  a  poor  bird  of  her  young  : 

And  I  lov'd  her  the  more  when  I  heard 

Such  tenderness  fall  from  her  tongue." 

The  Amphibrachic  measure,  in  which  there  is  a  long  syl- 
lable between  two  short  ones,  is  best  adapted  to  lively  comic 
subjects ;  as,  in  Addison's  Rosamond, 

"  Since  conjugal  passion 

Has  come  into  fashion, 
And  marriage  so  blest  on  the  throne  is, 

Like  Venus  I'll  shine, 

Be  fond  and  be  fine, 
And  Sir  Trusty  shall  be  my  Adonis." 

Such  a  measure  gives  to  sentiment  a  ludicrous  air,  and 
consequently /is  ill  adapted  to  serious  subjects. 

Great  art  may  be  used  by  a  poet  in  choosing  words  and 
feet  adapted  to  his  subject.  Take  the  following  specimen. 

"  Now  here,  now  there,  the  warriors  fall ;  amain 
Groans  murmur,  armor  sounds,  and  shouts  convulse  the 
plain." 

The  feet  in  the  last  line  are  happily  chosen.  The  slow 
Spondee,  in  the  beginning  of  the  verse,  fixes  the  mind  upon 
the  dismal  scene  of  woe  ;  the  solemnity  is  heightened  by  the 
pauses  in  the  middle  of  the  second  and  at  the  end  of  the 
third  foot :  But  when  the  poet  comes  to  shake  the  plains,  he 
closes  the  line  with  three  forcible  Iambics. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  167 

Of  a  similar  beauty  take  the  following  example. 
"  She  all  nightlong,  her  amorous  descant  sung." 

The  poet  here  designs  to  describe  the  length  of  the  night, 
and  the  music  of  the  nightingale's  song.  The  first  he  does 
by  two  slow  spondees,  and  the  last  by  four  very  rapid  syl- 
lables. 

The  following  lines,  from  Gray's  Elegy  written  in  a 
Country  Church-yard,  are  distinguished  by  a  happy  choice  of 
words. 

"  For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 
This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind  ?" 

The  words  longing  and  lingering  express  most  forcibly 
the  reluctance  with  which  mankind  quit  this  state  of  exist- 
ence. 

Pope  has  many  beauties  of  this  kind. 

"  And  grace  and  reason,  sense  and  virtue  split, 
With  all  the  rash  dexterity  of  wit." 

The  mute  articulations  with  which    these  lines  end,  ex- 
press the  idea  of   rending  asunder,  with  great   energy  and 
/effect.     The  words  rash   and   dexterity  are   also  judiciously 
chosen. 

In  describing  the  delicate  sensations  of  the  most  refined 
love,  he  is  remarkable  for  his  choice  of  smooth  flowing 
words.  There  are  some  passages  in  his  Eloisa  and  Abelard, 
which  are  extended  to  a  considerable  length  without  a  sin- 
gle mute  consonant  or  harsh  word. 

OF  READING   VERSE. 

With  respect  to  the  art  of  reading  verse,  we  can  lay  down 
but  a  few  simple  rules;  but  these  may  perhaps  be  useful. 

1.  Words  should  be  pronounced   as  in  prose  and  in  con- 
versation ;  for  reading  is  but  rehearsing  another's  conversa- 
tion. 

2.  The  emphasis  should  be  observed  as  in  prose.     The 
voice  should  bound   from   accent  to   accent,  and  no  stress 
should  be  laid  on  little  unimportant  words,  nor  on  weak  syl- 
lables. 


168  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

3.  The  sentential  pauses  should  be  observed  as  in  prose ; 
these  are  not  affected  by  the  kind  of  writing,  being  regula 
ted  entirely  by  the  sense.  But  as  the  cesural  and  final  paus 
es  are  designed  to  increase  the  melody  of  verse,  the  strict- 
est attention  must  be  paid  to  them  in  reading.  They  mark 
a  suspension  of  voice  without  rising  or  falling. 

To  read  prose  well,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  what 
read ;  and  to  read  poetry  well,  it  is  further  necessary  to  ur 
derstand   the  structure  of  verse.     For  want  of  this  knowl- 
edge, most  people  read  all  verse  like  the  Iambic  measure 
The  following  are  pure  Iambics. 

"  Above  how  high  progressive  life  may  go ! 
Around  how  wide,  how  deep  extend  below!" 

It  is  so  easy  to  lay  an  accent  on  every  second  syllable, 
that  any  school-boy  can  read  this  measure  with  tolerable 
propriety.  But  the  misfortune  is,  that  when  a  habit  of  read- 
ing this  kind  of  meter  is  once  formed,  persons  do  not  vary 
their  manner  to  suit  other  measures.  Thus  in  reciting  the 
following  line, 

"  Load  the  tall  bark,  and  lanch  into  the  main," 

many  people  would  lay  the  accent  on  every  second  syllable  ; 
and  thus  read,  our  poetry  becomes  the  most  monotonous 
and  ridiculous  of  all  poetry  in  the  world. 

Let  the  following  line  be  repeated  without  its  pauses,  and 
it  loses  its  principal  beauty. 

"  Bold,  as  a  hero,  as  a  virgin  mild." 
So  in  the  following. 

"  Reason,  the  card,  but  passion,  is  the  gale." 

"  From  storms,  a  shelter,  and  from  heat,  a  shade." 

The  harmony  is,  in  all  these  instances,  improved  much 
by  the  semi-pauses,  and  at  the  same  time  the  sense  is  more 
clearly  understood. 

Considering  the  difficulty  of  reading  verse,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising to  find  but  few  who  are  proficients  in  this  art.  A 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  verse,  of  the  several  kinds  of 
feet,  of  the  nature  and  use  of  the  final,  the  cesural  and  the 
semi-cesural  pauses,  is  essential  to  a  graceful  manner  of 
reading  poetry  ;  and  even  this,  without  the  best  examples, 
will  hardly  effect  the  purpose.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
children  should  not  be  permitted  to  read  poetry  of  the  more 
difficult  kind,  without  the  best  examples  for  them  to  imitate 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  169 

They  frequently  contract,  in  early  life,  either  a  monotony 
or  a  sing  song  cant,  which,  when  grown  into  a  habit,  is 
seldom  ever  eradicated. 

A  PRAXIS, 
Or  Example  of  Grammatical  Resolution. 

"  If  the  excellence  of  Dryden's  works  was  lessened  by 
his  indigence,  their  number  was  increased ;  and  I  know  not 
how  it  will  be  proved,  that  if  he  had  written  less,  he  would 
have  written  better ;  or  that  indeed  he  would  have  under- 
gone the  toil  of  an  author,  if  he  had  not  been  solicited  by 
something  more  pressing  than  the  love  of  praise." 

Johnson's  Life  of  Dryden. 

If — the  imperative  mode  of  the  verb  give,  formerly  written 
gif,  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  gifan — used  to  intro- 
duce a  supposition  of  what  is  expressed  in  the  following 
words. 

the — a  definitive,  used  to  limit  the  sense  of  excellence  in  its 
application    to    "  Dryden's   works" — that    particular    ex- 
cellence, 
excellence — a  name,  or  noun,  the  nominative  to  the  verb  was, 

or  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb  was  lessened, 
of — a  preposition,  preceding  Dryden's  works,  and  showing 
the  relation  of  those    words  to  excellence,  which  relation 
is  that  of  property  or  possession — of  the  works  of  Dry- 
den. 

Dryderfs — a  proper  or  appropriate  name — that  is,  a  name 
belonging  to  an  individual,  and  not  to  a  species — in  the 
possessive  case,  governed  by  works, 
works — a  name  in  the  plural  number,  following  of. 
was  lessened — the  passive  form  of  the  verb  to  lessen,  in  the 
past  tense,  indefinite,  subjunctive  mode,  third  person  sin- 
gular,   agreeing    with    excellence,    its    nominative.     This 
form  of  the  verb  is  composed  of  the  substantive  verb  was, 
and  the  participle  in  e d. 
by — a  preposition. 

his — an  attribute  agreeing  with  indigence. 
indigence — a  name  in  the   singular   number,  following  the 
preposition  by. 

15 


170  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

their — an  attribute  agreeing  with  number. 

number — a  name,  the  nominative  to  was  increased. 

ivas  increased — the  passive  form  of  the  verb  increase,  in  the 
past  tense  indefinite  of  the  indicative  mode,  third  person 
singular,  agreeing  with  number. 

and — a  connective  of  the  two  sentences,  the  preceding  and 
the  following.  The  sense  is  complete  at  increased,  and 
there  the  sentence  might  have  been  closed ;  but  as  other 
clauses  are  added  by  the  writer,  the  pause  is  marked  with 
a  semicolon. 

/ — a  substitute  for  the  writer's  name,  or  a  personal  pronoun, 
nominative  case  to  knoiv. 

know — a  transitive  irregular  verb,  affirming  a  fact,  and  there- 
fore in  the  indicative  mode — first  person  singular,  in  the 
present  tense  indefinite,  agreeing  with  J. 

not — a  modifier  of  the  verb  know,  rendering  the   affirmation 

negative. 
how — a  modifier  of  the  verb  will  be  proved. 

it — a  substitute  of  neuter  gender,  nominative  case — repre- 
senting the  subsequent  part  of  the  sentence — the  nomina- 
tive to  will  be  proved—  inceptive,  that  is,  introducing  the 
verb,  before  the  sentence  or  clause,  which  is  the  real  nom- 
inative. 

will  be  proved — the  passive  form  of  the  verb  prove  in  the 
future  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  the 
nominative  it. 

that — a  substitute  representing  the  same  part  of  the  sentence 
as  it — how  it  will  be  proved,  viz.  that  which  follows. 

if — -as    before    an    imperative    verb,    used   to   introduce    a 

condition. 
he — a  substitute  for  Dryden,  nominative  to  had  written. 

had  written — a  transitive  verb,  in  the  prior-past  tense,  inde- 
finite, subjunctive  mode,  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  he. 

less — an  attribute  in  the  comparative  degree,  here  used  as  a 
substitute  for  a  smaller  quantity,  the  object  after  the  transi- 
tive verb  had  written. 

he — a  substitute  for  Dryden,  nominative  to  would  have  writ- 
ten. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  171 

would  have  written — the  irregular  verb  write,  in  the  prior- 
past  tense  indefinite,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with 
he. 

better — a  modifier  qualifying  the  action  of  the  verb  would 
have  written — describing  the  manner  of  action — in  the 
comparative  degree. 

or — a  connective  of  the  sentences  between  which  it  stands, 
and  expressing  an  alternative. 

that — a  substitute  representing  a  part  of  the  sentence  which 
follows — the  words,  I  do  not  know  how  it  will  be  proved, 
are  here  understood  before  that. 

indeed — an  adverb,  or  rather  a  compound  of  in  and  deed — a 
preposition  and  noun. 

he — as  before,  nominative  to  would  have  undergone. 

would  have  undergone — the  irregular  compound  verb  under- 
go, in  the  prior-past  tense — agreeing  with  he,  the  third 
person. 

the — a  definitive,  limiting  the  sense  of  toil  to  a  particular 
kind — the  toil  of  an  author. 

toil — a  name  or  noun,  in  the  singular  number — the  object 
after  the  transitive  verb  would  have  undergone. 

of- — a  preposition. 

an — a  definitive,  limiting  the  subsequent  word  to  one  person. 

author — a  name  in  the  singular  number,  following  of. 

if — as  before,  expressing  a  condition. 

he — a  substitute  as  before,  nominative  to  had  been  solicited. 

had  been  solicited — the  passive  form  of  the  verb  solicit,  ren- 
dered negative  by  the  modifier  not — in  the  prior-past  tense 
of  the  subjunctive  mode,  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  he. 

by — a  preposition. 

something — a  noun,  composed  of  some  and  thing — following 
by. 

more — an  adverb  of  the  comparative  degree,  used  to  mod- 
ify the  sense  of  pressing. 

pressing — a  participle  of  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  press ; 
but  used  as  an  attribute  of  the  preceding  word  something. 

than — a  connective,  uniting  the  following  words  in  construc- 
tion with  the  preceding. 


172  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

the — a  definitive,  restraining  the  sense  of  love. 

love — a  name,  nominative  to  the  verb  is  understood. 

of- — a  preposition. 

praise — a  name — following  of. 

In  parsing  the  foregoing  and  all  similar  combinations  of 
words  forming  the  tenses  of  verbs,  the  several  auxiliaries 
may  be  named  separately,  if  the  teacher  should  prefer  that 
mode.  Thus  the  combination  was  lessened  consists  of 
was,  the  substantive  verb  in  the  past  tense,  and  lessened,  the 
passive  participle  of  the  transitive  verb  to  lessen.  The 
combination  will  be  proved  consists  of  the  auxiliary  will, 
and  the  substantive  verb  be,  and  the  participle  passive  of  the 
transitive  verb  to  prove;  all  together  forming  the  future 
tense. 

Critical  Notes. 

"  I  persecuted  this  way  unto  the  death." — Acts  22.  4. 

As  no  particular  sort  of  death  is  here  intended,  the  defini- 
tive the  ought  to  have  been  omitted. — Lowth. 

"  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you 
into  all  truth."— John  16.  13. 

As  the  sense  is  probably  all  evangelical  truth,  and  not 
other  kinds  of  truth,  Lowth  supposes  the  definitive  the  ought 
to  have  been  used ;  all  the  truth,  agreeable  to  the  original 
Greek.  This  criticism  is  probably  just;  but  the  student 
must  be  cautious  of  following  implicitly  the  use  of  the  Greek 
article  ;  for  nothing  is  less  determinate  1  and  Lowth  himself 
acknowledges  that  it  has  puzzled  all  the  grammarians  to  re- 
duce the  use  of  it  to  any  clear  and  certain  rules.  In  the 
New  Testament,  it  is  often  used  in  passages  where  it  is  not 
admissible  in  an  English  translation.  Matt.  3.  8,  "Bring 
forth  therefore  fruits  meet  for  repentance;"  in  the  Greek, 
worthy  of  the  repentance.  Verse  11,  "Whose  shoes  I  am 
not  worthy  to  bear ;"  in  the  original,  whose  the  shoes.  In 
the  same  verse,  "  He  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy 
Spirit;"  in  the  original,  with  Holy  Spirit.  Matt.  18.  8", 
"It  is  better  for  thee  to  enter  into  life  halt  or  maimed ;"  in 
the  original,  into  the  life.  Same  chapter,  verse  2,  "  And 
Jesus  called  a  little  child  unto  him ;"  in  the  original,  there 
is  no  definitive — And  Jesus  calling  child.  Verse  3,  "  Ex- 
cept ye  be  converted  and  become  as  little  children ;"  in  the 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  173 

original,  as  the  children.  Matt.  22.  13,  "  There  shall  be 
weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth  ;"  in  the  original,  there  shall 
be  the  [or  this]  weeping — and  the  gnashing  of  the  teeth.  Ch. 
24.  3,  "Upon  the  mount  of  the  olives."  Rom.  7.  1, 
"Know  ye  not,  brethren,  [for  I  speak  to  them  that  know 
the  law,]  how  that  the  law ;"  in  the  original,  I  speak  to  them 
that  know  law.  Verse  2,  "  For  the  woman  that  hath  a  hus- 
band is  bound  by  the  law  ;"  in  the  original,  bound  by  law. 
Verse  8,  "  For  without  the  law,  sin  was  dead  ;"  in  the  ori- 
ginal, without  law.  Verse  21,  "I  find  there  a  law;"  in  the 
original,  I  find  there  the  law.  A  multitude  of  similar  pas- 
sages might  be  cited  to  prove  how  little  is  the  analogy  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  English  languages,  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  the  definitives. 

But  to  place  this  fact  in  a  stronger  light,  let  it  be  observed 
that  the  Greeks  use  both  the  article  or  definitive  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  pronoun  this — that  is,  two  definitives  with  the 
same  word.  Rom.  7.  24,  "  Who  shall  deliver  me  from  the 
body  of  this  death?"  in  the  original,  from  the  body  of  the 
this  death,  or  the  death  this.  Matt.  4.  3,  "  If  thou  art  the 
Son  of  God,  command  that  these  stones  be  made  bread  ;"  in 
the  original,  the  these  stones.  This  is  a  common  idiom  of 
the  Greek,  and  one  utterly  repugnant  to  the  genius  of  the 
English. 

Equally  singular  is  the  use  of  the  Greek  article  before 
proper  names.  Matt.  2.  22,  "  He  turned  aside  into  the  parts 
of  Galilee;"  in  the  original,  into  the  parts  of  the  Galilee. 
Chap.  17.  1,  "Jesus  taketh  Peter;"  in  the  original,  the  Pe- 
ter. Chap.  3.  1, 

"  Preaching  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea ;"  orig.  of  the 
Judea. 

We  cannot  therefore  draw  any  general  inference,  res- 
pecting the  extent  of  the  signification  of  words  in  English, 
from  the  use  of  the  Greek  article.  Indeed,  there  are  many 
cases  where  this  article  must  be  omitted,  or  utterly  pervert 
the  true  meaning.  Matt.  11.  8,  "Behold,  they  that  wear 
soft  clothing  are  in  kings'  houses;"  in  the  original,  in  the 
houses  of  the  kings.  Ver.  11,  "  Among  them  that  are  born 
of  women,  there  hath  not  risen  a  greater  than  John  the 
Baptist;"  in  the  original,  them  that  are  born  of  the  women. 

In  other  cases,  the  English  the  must  be  used  where  no 
article  is  found  in  the  Greek ;  as  in  Matt.  11.  5,  (lThe  blind 
receive  their  sight — the  lame  walk — the  lepers  are  cleansed 
15* 


174  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

— and  the  deaf  hear."     Here  is  no  article  in  the  Greek,  but 
in  English  it  cannot  be  omitted,  except  before  lepers. 

Of  the  arbitrary  and  uncertain  proof  of  the  definite  article, 
the  French  language  furnishes  abundant  proof. 
"  L'avarice  est  de  tous  les  vices,  le  plus  odieux." 
The  avarice  is  the  most  hateful  of  all  vices. 

"  Le  gouvernment  doit  avant  toutes  choses  proteger  les 
proprietes."  The  government  ought  before  all  things  to 
protect  the  properties.  "  Theophraste  loue  /'hospitalite  et 
il  a  raison."  Theophrast  praises  the  hospitality,  and  he  has 
reason.  ISarret.  Trans,  of  Cicer.  de  Off. 

The  use  of  the  le  before  names  of  general  application,  is 
wholly  arbitrary  and  useless,  but  established  by  custom. 

Some  author,  I  think  Blair,  boasts  of  the  superiority  of 
the  English  over  the  Latin  language,  in  the  use  of  articles. 
This  is  a  great  error.  The  Latin  unus  is  the  English  an — 
and  is,  ifle,  hie,  answer  all  the  purposes  of  the,  this  and  that. 
The  Romans  used  these  definitives  when  they  wanted  them, 
nor  is  any  part  of  their  writings  left  obscure  for  want  of 
other  articles. 

"  Truly,  this  was  the  Son  of  God."  Matt.  27,  54.  Lowth 
supposes  that  the  should  be  «,  as  this  was  spoke  by  a  pagan 
who  probably  believed  in  a  plurality  of  Gods. 

So  also  in  Dan.  3.  25. 

In  this  passage,  "  About  an  eight  days," — Luke  9.  28,— an 
is  redundant  or  improper. — Lowth. 

"  Nevertheless,  Asa  his  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord." 
1  Kings  15.  14.  This  mode  of  expressing  possession  is  ob- 
solete. 

"  The  more  shame  for  ye."  The  use  of  ye  in  the  objec- 
tive is  admissible  only  in  the  comic  and  burlesque  style. — 
Lowth. 

In  popular  practice,  that  and  this  are  often  followed  by 
there  and  here — that  there  house  ;  this  here  tree.  This  idiom 
is  probably  as  old  as  language,  and  is  not  a  corruption.  It 
existed  in  the  Celtic — an  tigh  od,  that  house  there  ;  and  the 
French  has  preserved  it — Cet  maison  la.  It  may  have 
had  its  origin  in  the  poverty  of  the  primitive  languages  of 
the  world,  or  it  may  have  proceeded  from  the  practice  of 
pointing  to  objects  described,  or  from  the  Saxon  genitive  of 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  175 

this,  thissere ;  but  in  the  improved  style  of  modern  lan- 
guage, it  is  unnecessary,  and  in  English,  is  confined  to  the 
vulgar  and  colloquial  style. 

"  I  had  rather,"  is  probably  a  mistake  for  "  I  would  rath- 
er," but  the  error,  at  least  in  colloquial  language,  seems  in- 
corrigible. 

"The  rules  of  our  religion,  from  which  we  are  swerv- 
ed."—  Tillotson.  The  passive  form  of  swerve  is  obsolete. 
"  Flee  tliee  away" — "  Was  entered  into  a  conspiracy" — "  To 
vie  charities" — "  Take  pains  to  agree  the  sacred  and  pro- 
fane chronology" — are  incorrect;  for  intransitive  verbs  do 
not  admit  the  passive  form,  nor  an  object  after  them. 

Succeed,  though  numbered  among  intransitive  verbs,  has 
obtained  a  general  use  in  a  transitive  sense — "  Succeed  the 
means  of  grace,"  is  the  customary  language  of  divines,  and 
well  authorized. 

"  If  Jove  this  arm  succeed."  Pope. 

In  the  words  abed,  ashore,  &,c.  and  before  the  participles 
acoming,  agoing,  ashooting,  a  has  been  supposed  a  contrac- 
tion of  on  or  at.  It  may  be  so  in  some  cases ;  but  with  the 
participles,  it  is  sometimes  a  contraction  of  the  Saxon  prefix 
ge,  and  sometimes  perhaps  of  the  Celtic  ag. 

"  In  him  who  is,  and  him  who  finds,  a  friend."     Pope. 

Lowth  condemns  this  use  of  a  noun  in  the  nominative  and 
objective  at  the  same  time ;  but  without  reason,  as  the  cases 
are  not  distinguished  in  English. 

In  the  use  of  mistaken,  there  is  a  singularity  which  de- 
serves notice.  When  applied  to  persons,  it  is  equivalent  to 
being  wrong  or  in  an  error.  "  I  am  mistaken — you  are  mis- 
taken ;"  mean,  I  am  in  an  error — you  are  in  an  error.  But 
applied  to  things,  it  signifies  misunderstood;  his  words  or 
opinions  are  mistaken,  that  is,  misunderstood. 

As  used  for  that  in  the  following  sentence,  and  in  similar 
cases,  Lowth  condemns  as  improper  or  obsolete — "  the  rela- 
tions are  so  uncertain  as  they  require  a  great  deal  of  exam- 
ination."— Bacon.  This  use  of  as  is  obsolete ;  but  is  genu- 
ine English. 

It  is  a  popular  mistake  to  use  wives  for  the  possessive 
wife's.  It  is  at  my  wife's  disposal  is  correct ;  but  not,  at 
my  wives  disposal. 

On  the  other  hand,  printers  err  in  using  proves  for  proofs, 
m  the  plural. 


176  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

Latter  refers  both  to  time  and  place — later  to  time  only. — 
Priestley. 

We  sometimes  hear  the  strongest  of  the  two,  used  for  the 
stronger  of  the  two.  In  such  cases,  the  comparative  degree 
is  the  more  correct. 

Then  and  above  are  often  used  as  attributes ;  the  then  min- 
istry ;  the  above  remarks ;  nor  would  I  proscribe  this  use. 
It  is  well  authorized  and  very  convenient. 

Johnson  observes,  "  A  has  a  peculiar  signification,  de- 
noting the  proportion  of  one  thing  to  another  ;  as,  the  land- 
lord hath  a  hundred  a  year."  But  the  only  peculiarity  of 
this  use  is,  that  no  preposition  is  employed ;  a  hundred  a 
year,  for  a  hundred  in  a  year  or  for  a  year — a  dollar  a  day, 
instead  of  a  dollar  for  a  day. 

Averse,  in  Lowth's  opinion,  should  be  followed  by  from ; 
but  why,  any  more  than  repugnant  or  unwilling  1  Prac- 
tice has  established  the  use  of  to,  with  propriety. 

The  verb  lay  is  often  used  for  lie — I  will  lay  down.  Lay 
is  transitive — I  will  lay  myself  down.  When  no  object  fol- 
lows, the  intransitive  verb  lie  should  be  used ;  let  him  lie 
down. 

The  word  rather  is  used  to  express  a  small  degree  of  ex- 
cess ;  "  She  is  rather  profuse  in  her  expenses."  In  like  man- 
ner is  used  full;  "  the  coffee  is  full  strong." — Priestley. 

The  signification  of  words  in  construction,  sometimes  de- 
pends on  the  tone  of  voice  with  which  they  are  uttered  ;  thus, 
"  I  cannot  find  one  of  my  books,"  if  uttered  without  any  pe- 
culiar force  of  voice  upon  one,  means  that  one  of  my  books 
is  missing.  But  with  an  emphasis  upon  one,  it  means  that 
all  are  missing.  Thus,  if  I  say  "  No  laws  are  better  than 
the  English,"  the  word  no  uttered  without  emphasis,  makes 
me  declare  the  English  to  be  the  best  laws — with  emphasis, 
it  makes  me  affirm  them  to  be  worse  than  none. 

In  the  following  sentence,  an  important  distinction  is  made 
by  the  definitive  a — "  He  behaves  with  a  little  reverence." 
This  is  positive,  and  rather  praises  than  dispraises  ;  but  omit- 
ting a — "  He  behaves  with  little  reverence,"  and  I  rather  dis- 
praise the  person.  Thus,  when  I  say  "  There  were  few  men 
present,"  I  speak  of  the  number  as  inconsiderable  by  way  of 
diminution — But  there  were  a  few  men  present,  I  intend  to 
represent  the  number  in  the  most  favorable  light. — Priestley. 

When  we  say  "  half  a  dollar,"  we  mean  in  value  only — 
but  "  a  half  dollar,"  means  a  coin  or  piece  of  money. 


OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  177 

In  this  mode  of  expression,  "  He  looks  him  full  in  the 
face,"  the  is  used  for  his,  which  is  rendered  unnecessary  by 
the  use  of  him  preceding. — Priestley. 

There  are  many  grammatical  errors  in  the  writers  of  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries,  which  Lowth,  Priestley,  Blair,  and 
Campbell  have  enumerated  in  their  respective  works,  and 
many  of  them  are  copied  into  Murray's  Grammar.  But  the 
greatest  part  of  them  are  now  so  perfectly  obsolete,  that  stu- 
dents are  in  no  danger  of  learning  them,  either  from  books 
or  common  practice  ;  and  it  seems  to  be  inexpedient  to  swell 
^he  size  of  a  modern  grammar,  by  criticisms  upon  modes  of 
writing  no  longer  used. 

CONCLUSION. 

In  the  preceding  pages,  I  have  attempted  to  unfold  the 
true  principles  of  construction  in  the  English  language.  It 
is  probably  the  first  correct  analysis  of  many  sentences  ever 
attempted.  The  following  observations  and  examples  will 
show  that  the  same  or  a  similar  analysis  is  necessary  to  ex- 
plain the  true  construction  of  sentences  in  other  languages. 

O&x  yag  OTI  oux  oixsi  fv  S|xo»,  TOW  ££iv  sv  <rou  tfa^xi  /xou,  a^a$ov. 
"  For  I  know  that  in  me,  that  is,  in  my  flesh,  dwelleth  no 
good  thing." 

In  this  sentence,  the  Greek  on,  that,  is  called  a  conjunc- 
tion, as  that  is  in  English.  This  is  a  mistake  ;  on  is  a  pro- 
noun relative  or  substitute  for  the  following  part  of  the  sen- 
tence. The  sentence  is  to  be  thus  resolved — '•'  In  me,  that 
is,  in  my  flesh,  dwelleth  no  good  thing  ;"  that  I  know,  or  I 
know  that.  I  know  the  fact  stated  in  the  whole  of  that  part 
of  the  sentence  which  in  Greek  follows  o<n.  Similar  is  the 
.use  of  on  in  most  other  cases.  This  pronoun,  like  quod  in 
Latin,  and  that  in  English,  is  to  be  considered  as  of  neuter 
gender  ;  and  never  varied  for  expressing  number.  The  rea- 
son is  obvious  ;  when  such  words  represent  or  refer  to  sen- 
tences, no  variation  is  necessary. 

Homo  autem,  quod  rationis  est  particeps,  per  quam  con- 
sequentia  cernit,  facile  totius  vitae  cursum  videt. — Cicero  de 
Off.  ca.  4.  The  literal  construction  of  this  sentence  is,  "  But 
man,  that  he  is  a  partaker  of  reason,  readily  sees  the  whole 
course  of  life." 

We  are  accustomed  to  call  quod  a  conjunction,  and  per- 
haps because  it  seems  to  have  no  word  to  govern  it.  But 


178  AN    IMPROVED    GRAMMAR 

usage  constitutes  the  correctness  of  the  phrase,  and  no  other 
rule  of  government  is  necessary  ;  it  is  the  only  rule  of  cor- 
rect language  in  all  cases.  Quod  we  render  by  because,  or 
as,  or  since ;  but  in  this  use,  quod  expresses  cause,  reason, 
or  purpose,  in  a  brief  idiomatic  form,  and  is  really  the  rela- 
tive pointing  to  the  following  part  of  the  sentence.  It  is 
perhaps  elliptically  used,  former  quod. 

In  unfolding  the  structure  of  sentences,  it  would  be  useful 
to  the  tyro,  to  resolve  compound  words  into  their  component 
parts.  Thus  quamobrem,  is  quam  ob  rem,  or  ob  quam  rem  ; 
quare,  is  qua  and  re,  in  the  ablative ;  inter ea,  is  inter  ea ; 
prtBterea,  is  prater  ea ;  qualibct,  is  quam  or  quod  libet ; 
quamvis,  is  quam  and  vis  ;  quaqua,  a  duplication  of  the  rela- 
tive in  the  ablative. 

The  principles  explained  in  this  work  throw  much  light 
on  what,  are  called  impersonal  verbs.  As  it  is  written  in 
the  prophets,  "  Behold  I  send  my  messenger  before  tJiy  face, 
who  shall  prepare  thy  way  before  thce." — Mark  1.  2.  Here 
the  whole  passage  cited  is  the  nominative  to  ysygoLicrau,  that 
is  written  in  the  prophets.  In  English  it — precedes  the 
verb,  but,  as  has  been  observed,  it  is  the  representative  of  the 
sentence  which  follows. 

"  Sed  animadvertendum  est  diligentius,  quse  natura  re- 
rum  sit." — Cicero  de  Off.  lib.  2.  20.  Here  the  last  member 
of  the  sentence  is  the  real  nominative  to  the  verb  est — what 
is  the  nature  of  things,  is  to  be  considered. — It  is  observable 
that  in  this  form  of  construction,  where  a  sentence  or  mem- 
ber is  the  nominative,  the  participle  or  attribute  is  of  the 
neuter  gender.* 

"  duamquam  te,  Marce  fill,  annum  jam  audientem  Cratip- 
pum,  idque  Athenis,  abundare  oportet  prseceptis  institutisque, 
philosophise." — Ibm.  1.1.  "  Although,  Marcus,  it  behooves 
you,  who  have  now  attended  Cratippus  a  year  at  Athens,  to 
be  well  furnished  with  the  precepts  and  maxims  of  philoso- 
phy."— Here  the  last  part  of  the  sentence  is  really  the  nom- 
inative to  oportet.  To  be  well  initiated  in  the  principles  of 
philosophy  becomes  you,  my  son,  who  enjoy  the  advantage 
of  the  institutions  of  Cratippus,  at  Athens,  the  seat  of  sci- 
ence and  the  arts.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  licet, 


*  Yet  some  verbs  appear  to  be  really  impersonal,  as,  "  pugnatum  est 
sub  muris."     It  was  fought  under  the  walls. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.          179 

libet,  lubet,  placet,  &/c.  "  Si  placet  tibi  audire" — if  to  hear 
pleases  you. 

But  the  French  exceeds  all  languages  in  the  number  of 
nouns,  verbs  and  adjectives,  which  are  thrown  into  the  com- 
mon sink  of  adverbs,  conjunctions  and  prepositions.  Thus 
autre  fois,  aujourd'hui,  cependant,  autour,  autant,  pourquoi, 
pent  etre,  are  denominated  adverbs — autant  que,  pourvu  que, 
a  condition  que,  de  sorte  que,  pendant  que  are  called  con- 
junctions— concernant,  suivant,  attendu,  joignant,  pendant, 
cxcepte,  all  regular  verbals  or  participles,  are  classed  among 
the  prepositions.  Yet  it  would  be  far  better  to  resolve  all 
words  and  phrases  according  to  their  original  principles,  as 
far  as  it  can  be  done.  "  II  est,  pent  etre,  difficile  de  ranger 
sous  1'ordre  de  la  nature,  la  divination  qui  vient  de  1'art  et 
de  1'etude." — Morabins,  Trans.  Cic.  de  Divin.  liv.  1. 

It  is  difficult  to  rank,  in  the  order  of  nature,  the  divination 
which  proceeds  from  art  and  study — all  this — peut  etre — 
may  be.  In  strictness,  the  whole  sentence  or  proposition 
which  is  affirmed  to  be  possible,  is  the  nominative  to  peut 
etre.  Ce  pendant — that  pending,  admitting  that  to  be  the 
fact,  is  the  case  absolute  or  independent.  Pendant  que,  that 
depending,  during  that — pourvu  que — that  being  provided. 
— "  J'ai  quelque  chose  a  vous  dire  concernant  cette  affaire." 
I  have  something  to  say  to  you,  concerning  that  affair. 
Here  concerning  retains  its  verbal  signification,  as  in  Eng- 
lish, and  relates  to  or  agrees  with  the  preceding  part  of  the 
sentence.  "  J'obeis  suivant  vos  ordres."  I  obey,  follow- 
ing your  orders.  "  II  travaille  toute  la  semaine  except e  le 
dimanche."  He  labors  the  whole  week,  Sunday  excepted — 
that  is,  Sunday  being  excepted — the  case  independent. — 
Parce  que — because — that  is,  for  that  which  follows — Parce 
que  il  pretend  qu  il  y  a  dans  la  nature  des  signes  des  choses 
— Par  the  preposition,  ce  the  pronoun  or  definitive,  and  que 
the  substitute  representing  the  following  part  of  the  sentence. 
"  Soit  qu1  il  parte  ou  qu'  il  demeure."  Whether  he  goes  or 
stays — that  is,  Be  it,  soit  que — be  that  fact  which  is  express- 
ed by  il  parte — que  is  a  substitute  or  relative  referring  to  the 
following  affirmation — il  parte — and  the  nominative  to  soit. 
In  the  second  member  of  the  sentence  soit  is  understood 
before  que. 

The  sentence  fully  expressed  would  stand  thus ;  soit  que 
— il  parte;  ou  soit  que,  il  demeure.  Be  that,  he  goes;  or, 
be  that,  he  remains. 


180  AN  IMPROVED  GRAMMAR. 

"  Qui  a  fait  que  j'ai  trouve  grace  devant  le  roi."  Literal- 
ly, who  hath  made  that  I  have  found  favor  before  the  king. 
But  let  the  clauses  of  the  sentence  be  transposed.  "  I  have 
found  favor  before  the  king ;  who  hath  made  or  caused  that." 

Mais  pendant  que  les  hommes  dormoient.  But  while  men 
slept;  literally,  but  pending  that  men  slept.  Here  que  relates 
to  the  last  words,  les  hommes  dormoient. — Matt.  13. 

Pourvu  que  j'acheve  avec  joie  ma  course.  Provided  that, 
I  may  [or  might]  finish  my  course  with  joy.  Here  pourvu 
is  a  participle,  which  with  que,  constitutes  the  case  absolute, 
or  independent  sentence  ;  and  que,  the  relative,  refers  to  the 
following  part  of  the  sentence. — Acts  20. 

These  criticisms,  already  extended  to  an  inconvenient 
length,  considering  the  limited  nature  of  this  work,  may 
serve  to  show  the  reader  how  artificial  and  arbitrary  are  the 
distribution  and  denominations  of  the  several  species  of 
words,  in  our  grammars,  and  how  ill  calculated  are  the  com- 
mon rules  to  illustrate  the  origin  or  the  true  principles  of 
language.  Before  a  language  can  be  correctly  understood, 
words  must  be  traced  to  their  source,  their  radical  significa- 
tions explained,  their  mutations,  contractions,  and  combina- 
tions, developed.  It  is  not  the  English  language  only  whose 
history  and  principles  are  yet  to  be  illustrated ;  but  the 
grammars  and  dictionaries  of  all  other  languages,  with  which 
I  have  any  acquaintance,  must  be  revised  and  corrected,  be- 
fore their  elements  and  true  construction  can  be  fully  un- 
derstood. 


APPENDIX. 


The  following  Examples  of  the  Declension  of  Nouns  may  be 
added  under  the  article  CASE,  page  24. 


Sing.  Plu. 

Nom.         book  books 

Poss.         book's  books' 

Obj.           book  books 


Richard  William 

Richard's        William's 
Richard  William 


In  the  following,  the  possessive  case  singular  is  pronounced 
with  an  additional  syllable. 


Nom. 

face 

faces 

Thomas 

flesh 

Poss. 

face's 

faces' 

Thomas's 

flesh's 

Obj. 

face 

faces 

Thomas 

flesh 

Nom. 

horse 

horses 

tress 

miss 

Poss. 

horse's 

horses' 

tress's 

miss's 

Obj. 

f  horse 

horses 

tress 

miss 

Nom. 

church 

churches 

highness 

peeress 

Poss. 

church's 

churches' 

highness's 

peeress's 

Obj. 

church 

churches 

highness 

peeress. 

Singular  Number. 

Nom.         flax  plexus          Syrius  Venus 

Poss.         flax's          plexus's       Syrius's  Venus's 

Obj.  flax  plexus          Syrius  Venus 

Let  it  be  observed  that  after  ce  and  se  in  face,  horse ;  after 
ch  in  church ;  after  s,  sh  and  ss  in  Thomas,  flesh,  tress,  and 
Venus,  and  after  x  in  flax,  the  possessive  case  must  be  pro- 
nounced with  an  additional  syllable,  as  if  the  word  ended 
in  es. 

16 


182  APPENDIX. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 


EXAMPLES  TO  BE  CORRECTED  BY  RULE  I. 

Present  Tense. 

I  goeth  ;  I  goes  ;  I  loveth  ;  I  walketh  ;  I  is  ;  I  art. 
Thou  loves  ;  thou  write  ;  thou  hate  ;  thou  trembles. 
He,  she  or  it,  desire  ;  he  commend  ;  she  dress  ;  it  rain. 
We  finds  ;  we  sees  the  clouds  ;  we  dreadeth  the  cold. 
Ye  or  you  studies  ;  you  ploweth  the  field  ;  you  runs  fast. 
They  playeth  ;  they  strikes  the  ball  ;  they  sells  corn. 
The  teacher   smileth  ;  the  woman  spinneth ;  the  children 
cries. 

EXAMPLE    2    BY    RULE    II. 

It  was  declared  to  me,  him  being  present. 

It  was  said  of  him,  them  being  in  the  company. 

This  was  done,  her  not  knowing  it — or  thee  not  knowing  it. 

BY    RULE    III   AND    IV. 

To  publish  slanderous  words  are  wrong  and  wicked. 

To  rise  early  contribute  to  health. 

To  be  kind  art  a  duty,  and  are  a  pleasure. 

To  be  just,  are  a  divine  command. 

To  be  unjust,  are  mean  as  well  as  wicked. 

EXAMPLE    3    BY    RULE    VI. 

America  and  Europe  is  three  thousand  miles  distant  from 
each  other. 

Gold  and  tin  is  both  useful  metals. 

Instruction  and  wisdom  leads  to  honor. 

Strong  drink  and  laziness  soon  wasteth  an  estate. 

Labor  and  economy  seldom  fails  to  produce  wealth. 

Anger  and  envy  destroys  happiness. 

Love  and  kindness  insures  domestic  peace. 

Your  lot  and  mine  has  been  very  different. 

I  and  you  am  very  intimately  acquainted. 

You  and  he  resembles  each  other. 


APPENDIX.  183 

EXAMPLE  4  BY  RULE  VII. 

John  or  Thomas  have  done  the  mischief. 
Envy  or  jealousy  were  the  cause  of  his  misery. 
Extreme  cold  or  heat  are  painful. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  poor  man  or  the  mi- 
ser most  deserve  pity. 

EXAMPLE    5    BY    RULE    VIII. 

That  sort  of  goods  are  not  fashionable.  What  sort  then  are 
to  be  preferred  1 

These  sort  of  clothes  are  not  durable. 

This  kind  of  lands  are  not  fertile.  These  kind  are  less  va- 
luable. 

A  troop  of  horse  were  raised.  This  assembly  were  nume- 
rous. 

That  company  were  very  noisy  and  rude. 

A  council  were  called  to  deliberate. 

EXAMPLE    6    BY    RULE    X. 

This  are  not  my  children. 

Speak  to  the  men  and  say  to  him. 

There  are  twelves  states  who  are  adjacent  to  the  Atlantic. 

I  see  several  horses  who  were  brought  from  Arabia. 

The  men  which  I  saw  were  tall  and  robust. 

He  has  four  daughters  which  are  young  and  handsome. 

Piety  is  the  ornament  who  most  adorns  the  female  sex. 

EXAMPLE    7    BY    RULE    XII. 

Take  thy  only  son  who  thou  lovest. 
John  is  the  man  who  we  admire  for  his  integrity. 
Washington  was  the  man  who  the  electors  chose  first  Pre- 
sident. 

EXAMPLE    8    BH  RULE    XVII. 

Congress  assembled  agreeably  to  adjournment. 

Accordingly  to  order,  the  house  proceeded  to  business. 

The  sun  rose,  previously  to  his  arrival. 

Antecedently  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  there  was 
no  public  provision  for  the  poor. 

Antecedently  to  the  gospel,  bravery  was  considered  one  of 
the  first  of  virtues. 


184  APPENDIX. 

Subsequently  to  the  promulgation  of  the  gospel,  humility 
was  held  to  be  the  first  of  virtues. 

We  cannot  indulge  in  intemperance,  consistently  with  the 
principles  of  religion.  [In  consistency.] 

He  voted  in  the  negative,  conformably  to  his  former  opinions. 
[In  conformity.] 

The  subject  was  considered,  relatively  to  the  condition  of 
the  society.  [In  relation.] 

Isaac  was  called  the  seed  of  Abraham,  preferably  to  Ish- 
mael.  [In  preference.] 

EXAMPLE    9    BY    RTTLE    XXI. 

Each  of  the  men  are  furnished  with  the  Bible. 
Every  one  of  them  were  able-bodied  men. 
Neither  of  the  roads  were  the  shortest. 
Either  of  the  houses  are  sufficiently  large. 

EXAMPLE     10    BY    RULE    XXV. 

We  seldom  hear  that  a  man  holding  fire  in  his  hand  produces 
HO  pain. 

A  person  selling  cheap  and  buying  dear  will  probably  end  in 
ruin. 

A  man  agreeing  to  a  covenant  binds  him  to  a  performance. 

EXAMPLE    11    BY    RULE    XXVI. 

Do  you  love  he  ?     Does  he  love  thou  ? 
Who  do  you  seek  ? 

EXAMPLE    12    BY   RULE    XXIX. 

It  is  me.     It  was  him.     It  was  them  :  it  was  her. 
Who  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?     Who  do  men  alledge  me 
to  be? 

EXAMPLE    13    BY    RULE    XXXII. 

Bid  my  son  to  go.  Make  the  man  to  work.  See  the  stu- 
dent to  read.  Hear  him  to  recite.  Feel  the  chair  to  move. 
Let  him  to  see  the  place.  He  may  not  to  go.  He  might  not 
to  learn.  We  must  to  be  industrious.  Shall  we  to  be  com- 
pelled. Will  they  to  fulfill  their  obligations  ? 

u  Nothing  could  have  engaged  him  to  have  undertaken  this 
royage." 


• 


APPENDIX.  185 

"  It  would  have  been  easy  to  have  swelled  this  portion  of  my 
volume  with  correspondence." — 

"  I  did  not  mean  to  have  been  so  troublesome." 
"  They  are  intended  to  be  such  explanations  as  I  conceived 
the  author  would  have  made,  had  he  have  had  in  view  the  pur- 
pose to  which  the  book  is  now  applied." 

EXAMPLE    14    BY    RULE    XXXV. 

By  not  favoring  of  his  proposal — By  engaging  of  his  men 
in  service. 

By  the  wasting  his  estate — by  the  employing  his  resources 
to  bad  purposes. 

FORMATION  OF  VERBS  IN  THE  SEVERAL  TENSES  AND  PER- 
SONS. 

To  turn,  a  regular  verb. 

Indicative.  Present.  Indefinite.  Singular.  I  turn,  thou,  he, 
she  or  it.  Plural.  We,  ye  or  you,  they. 

Definite.     I  am  turning,  &c.     Grammar,  p.  66. 

Past,  indefinite.     I  turned,  thou,  &c. 

Definite.     I  was  turning,  &c. 

Perfect,  indefinite.     I  have  turned,  &c. 

Definite.  I  have  been  turning,  &c. 

Prior-Past,  indefinite.     I  had  turned,  &c. 

Definite.     I  had  been  turning,  &c. 

Future  indefinite.     I  shall  or  will  turn,  &c. 

Definite.     I  shall  be  turning,  &c. 

Prior-Future,  indefinite.     I  shall  have  turned,  &c. 

Definite.     I  shall  have  been  turning,  &c. 

The  pupil  is  to  form  the  tenses  ;  repeating  all  the  combina- 
tions, and  the  inflections,  of  the  verbs  in  the  several  persons. 

To  Go,  an  irregular  verb. 

Indicative.  Present  time.  Indefinite.  I  go,  thou,  he,  she,  it. 
We,  ye  or  you,  they. 

Definite.     I  am  going,  &c. 
Past  Tense,  indefinite.     I  went,  &c. 
Definite.     I  was  going,  &c. 
Perfect  Tense,  indefinite.     I  have  gone,  &c. 
Definite.     I  have  been  going,  <fec. 
Prior-Past,  indefinite.     I  had  gone,  &c. 
16* 


186  APPENDIX. 

Definite.     I  had  been  going,  &c. 
Future  Tense,  indefinite.     I  shall  or  will  go,  &c. 
Definite.     I  shall  or  will  be  going,  &c. 
Prior-Future,  indefinite.     I  shall  have  been  gone,  &c, 
Definite.  I  shall  have  been  going,  &c. 

In  like  manner,  teachers  may  give  their  pupils  any  other  verb, 
and  particularly  irregular  verbs,  and  oblige  them  to  form  all  the 
tenses  and  persons.  The  past  tense  and  participles  may  be 
found  in  my  Grammar  p.  74,  75,  76. 

The  same  may  be  done  with  verbs  in  the  passive,  interroga- 
tive and  negative  form. 

LESSONS    IN    PARSING,   AND    RESOLUTION    OF    PHRASES. 

LESSON  I. 

If  the  power  of  example  is  so  great,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  best  examples  only  should  be  exhibited.  Rambler  No.  4. 

If,  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode,  contracted  from  give ;  the, 
a  definitive  adjective  agreeing  with  power,  and  expressing  a 
particular  power ;  power,  a  common  noun,  nominative  to  is ; 
of,  a  preposition  ;  example,  a  noun  following  of  in"  the  objective 
case  ;  is,  the  substantive  verb,  intransitive,  in  the  third  person 
of  the  present  tense,  indicative  mode,  agreeing  with  power ; 
so,  an  adverb  or  modifier  of  great ;  great,  an  adjective  agreeing 
with  power ;  care,  a  noun,  the  nominative  to  should  be ;  should, 
an  auxiliary  verb,  past  tense  of  shall,  but  in  this  conditional 
sentence,  the  time  or  tense  is  indefinite  ;  be,  an  intransitive 
verb,  and  with  should  is  indefinite  in  time  ;  taken,  a  passive 
participle,  from  take,  an  irregular,  but  transitive  verb ;  and 
should  be  taken  are  the  passive  form  of  the  verb  take,  indefi- 
nite tense.  See  Improved  Grammar,  p.  68,  69.  That,  a  pro- 
noun or  substitute  for  the  following  member  of  the  sentence  ; 
the,  a  definitive  adjective  agreeing  with  examples ;  best,  an  ad- 
jective in  the  superlative  degree,  agreeing  with  examples  ;  ex- 
amples, a  noun  in  the  plural  number,  the  nominative  to  should 
be  exhibited  ;  only,  an  adverb  or  modifier  of  examples  and  limit- 
ing the  word  to  the  best ;  should,  an  auxiliary  verb  as  before  ; 
be,  an  intransitive  verb,  as  before  ;  exhibited,  the  participle  pass- 
ive of  the  verb  exhibit,  and  these  forming  the  passive  form  of 
the  verb,  in  time  indefinite.  Gram.  p.  56. 


APPENDIX.  187 

RESOLUTION. 

Give  the  fact,  viz.  the  power  of  example  is  so  great,  then 
care  should  be  taken  that,  viz.  the  best  examples  only  should 
be  exhibited.  The  verb  give  introduces  the  condition,  or  sup- 
position, which  being  admitted  or  granted,  the  consequence  fol- 
lows. 

LESSON  II. 

If  her  ladyship  therefore  designs  to  continue  her  assembly, 
I  would  advise  her  to  shun  such  dangerous  experiments. — 

Rambler  No.  10. 

If,  a  verb.  Imp.  for  give,  introducing  a  condition ;  her, 
a  pronominal  adjective  agreeing  with  ladyship,  which  is  a 
common  noun,  nom.  to  designs ;  therefore,  a  compound  of 
there  and  for,  (there  originally  a  pronoun  signifying  that, 
and  for  a  preposition,  the  word  then  is  equivalent  to  for  that, 
that  is,  for  that  reason,  referring  to  something  preceding,)  de- 
signs, a  regular  verb  transitive,  ind.  mode  ;  pr.  tense  ;  3d  per- 
son sing.,  agreeing  with  ladyship ;  to,  a  preposition  ;  continue, 
a  transitive  verb,  preceded  by  to,  in  the  infinitive  mode,  fol- 
lowing designs  ;  Gram.  Rule  xxxi :  her,  pronominal  adj.  agree- 
ing with  assembly,  which  is  a  common  noun,  sing.  num.  obj. 
case,  governed  by  continue  ;  I,  a  personal  pronoun,  sing.  num. 
nom.  case  to  would  advise  ;  would,  an  auxiliary  verb,  past  time 
of  will,  but  indefinite  ,  advise,  a  regular  verb  transitive,  with 
the  auxiliary  would,  in  the  indefinite  tense,  and  agreeing  with 
/;  her,  a  personal  pronoun  of  feminine  gender,  in  the  object- 
ive case  following  advise ;  to  shun,  a  transitive  regular  verb  in 
the  infinitive  mode,  following  her  or  advise ;  such,  an  adjective 
agreeing  with  experiments ;  dangerous,  an  adjective  agreeing 
with  experiments,  which  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  plural  num- 
ber, governed  by  shun  in  the  obj.  case. 

RESOLUTION. 

Give,  or  grant  the  fact  expressed  in  the  words,  her  ladyship 
designs  to  continue  her  assembly,  then  I  would  advise  her,  &c. 

Formerly  this  verb  if  was  followed  by  that,  as,  "  If  that  I 
may  apprehend." — Phil.  3.12.  This  is  the  proper  phrase,  the 
word  that,  a  pronoun  following  the  verb  if  in  the  objective 
case,  and  referring  to  the  following  clause  of  the  sentence.  In 
modern  writings,  that  is  usually  omitted. 


188  APPENDIX. 

LESSON  III. 

But  though  that  we,  or  an  angel  from  heaven  preach  to  you 
otherwise,  than  that  which  we  have  preached  to  you,  let  him 
be  accursed. — Gal.  1.  8.  Bishop's  Bible. 

But,  a  connective  or  conjunction,  indicating  some  connec- 
tion of  the  sense  with  the  preceding  sentence  ;  though,  a  verb 
transitive,  but  defective,  imp.  mode,  introducing  a  condition 
admitted,  and  governing  the  pronoun  that  in  the  objective  case  ; 
that,  a  pronoun  or  substitute  for  the  following  clause  of  the 
sentence ;  we,  a  personal  pronoun,  nom.  plu.  to  preach ;  or,  a 
connective  expressing  an  alternative  or  one  of  two  things  ;  an, 
an  adjective,  denoting  one  indefinitely  ;  angel,  a  noun,  sing, 
num.  nominative  to  preach ;  from,  a  preposition ;  heaven,  a 
noun  sing.  num.  following  from;  preach,  a  regular  verb  tran- 
sitive, in  the  future  tense,  for  shall  preach,  or  should  preach, 
agreeing  with  angel  the  nom. ;  to,  a  preposition ;  you,  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  obj.  case  plu.  following  to ;  otherwise,  a  com- 
pound of  other  and  wise,  used  as  a  modifier  of  the  sense,  or 
manner  of  speaking  ;  than,  a  connective  ;  that,  a  pronoun  fol- 
lowing than.  Rule  45  ;  and  referring  to  the  following  clause 
of  the  sentence  ;  ivhich,  a  pronoun  of  the  neuter  gender,  obj. 
case,  governed  by  preach.  Rule  12  ;  we,  a  personal  pronoun, 
nom.  plu.  to  have  preached ;  have,  an  auxiliary  verb  ;  preached, 
a  participle  of  the  perfect  tense,  with  the  auxiliary  have,  form- 
ing the  perfect  tense,  agreeing  with  we  in  the  nom.  case  ;  to, 
a  preposition  ;  you,  a  pronoun,  obj.  case  plu.  following  to  ;  let, 
an  irregular  verb  transitive,  imp.  mode,  agreeing  with  the  pro- 
noun thou  or  you;  him,  a  personal  pronoun,  in  the  obj.  case, 
sing,  following  let,  a  transitive  verb  ;  ^intransitive  verb,  with 
accursed,  the  passive  participle  of  accurse,  constituting  the 
passive  form  of  the  verb,  following  let,  [or  let  him  be  accursed, 
may  be  classed  together  in  the  imperative  mode.] 

RESOLUTION. 

But  allow,  [grant,  admit]  that  [which  follows]  an  angel  from 
heaven  preach  to  you  otherwise,  than  that  which  we  have 
preached  to  you,  let  him  be  accursed. 


LESSON  IV. 

Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  poor. 

2  Cor.  8,  9. 


APPENDIX.  189 

Though,  a  verb  defective,  imp.  mode,  followed  by  the  clause, 
he  was  rich,  as  the  object :  he,  a  personal  pronoun,  nom.  case, 
to  was ;  was,  the  substantive  verb,  in  the  past  tense,  3d  person, 
sing.  num.  agreeing  with  he ;  rich,  an  adjective  agreeing  with 
he ;  yet,  a  connective  ;  for,  a  preposition  ;  your,  a  pronominal 
adjective,  plu.  agreeing  with  sakes ;  sakes,  a  noun  plu.  numb, 
following  the  preposition  for ;  he,  as  before,  nominative  to  be- 
came ;  became,  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  past  tense,  3d  per- 
son sing,  agreeing  with  he  ;  poor,  an  adjective  agreeing  with  he. 

RESOLUTION. 

Allow,  or  admit,  that  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  be- 
came poor.  The  compound  although  has  a  like  signification, 
and  is  to  be  parsed  in  like  manner. 

LESSON  V. 

His  face  was  as  though  he  would  go  to  Jerusalem.    Luke  $,  53. 

His,  an  adjective  agreeing  with  face  ;  face,  a  noun  nom.  to 
was ;  as,  an  adverb  ;  though,  a  defective  verb,  imp.  mode  ; 
he,  a  personal  pronoun,  3d  person  nom.  to  would  go  ;  would,  an 
auxiliary  to  go  ;  go,  a  verb  intransitive,  with  would  in  the  tense 
indefinite,  3d  person,  agreeing  with  he  ;  to,  a  preposition ;  Je- 
rusalem, a  proper  noun,  following  to. 

RESOLUTION. 

His  face  was,  as,  allow  or  admitting  the  fact  that  he  intended 
actually  to  go  to  Jerusalem — as  if  the  fact  were  admitted  and 
real.  The  following  may  thus  be  resolved.  "  He  says  I  must 
not  go ;  but  I  will  though11 — vulgar  phraseology.  Allow  or 
admit  that  he  says  "  I  must  not  go,  yet  I  will," 

LESSON  VI. 

Provided  it  shall  not  rain,  I  will  take  a  ride. 

Provided,  a  passive  participle  of  the  verb  provide,  with  the 
following  clause  constituting  the  clause  independent.  But 
there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  word  that — provided  that,  it  shall  not 
rain  ;  that  fact  being  provided.  It,  the  neuter  pronoun,  nom. 
case  ;  shall,  an  auxiliary  to  rain  ;  not,  an  adverb  ;  rain,  a  verb 
intransitive,  in  the  third  person,  with  shall,  forming  the  future 
tense,  agreeing  with  it;  I,  a  personal  pronoun,  first  person, 
nom.  to  will  take ;  will,  an  auxiliary  to  take,  a  transitive  verbt 


190  APPENDIX. 

and  with  will  forming  the  future  tense,  first  person,  agreeing 
with  I ;  a,  an  adjective  agreeing  with  ride;  ride,  a  noun  obj. 
case,  following  take. 

LESSON  VIT. 

The  woman  saith  to  him,  Sir,  I  perceive  that  thou  art  a 
prophet. — John  4,  19. 

The,  a  definitive  adjective  ;  woman,  a  noun  feminine,  nom. 
case  to  saith ;  saith,  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  in  the  3d  per- 
son sing.  num.  agreeing  with  woman  ;  to,  a  preposition  ;  him, 
a  personal  pronoun,  obj.  case  after  to ;  Sir,  a  noun  in  the  no- 
minative case,  used  as  an  address  ;  /,  a  personal  pronoun  first 
person,  nom.  to  perceive  ;  perceive,  a  regular  transitive  verb,  in 
the  first  person,  ind.  mode,  pr.  tense,  agreeing  with  /;  that,  a 
pronoun,  or  substitute  for  the  following  clause  ;  thou,  a  personal 
pronoun,  2d  person,  sing.  num.  nom.  to  art ;  art,  an  intransi- 
tive verb,  2d  person,  ind.  mode,  pr.  tense,  agreeing  with  thou  ; 
a,  definitive  adjective,  agreeing  with  prophet ;  prophet,  a  noun 
nominative  case  following  art.  Rule  xxix. 

RESOLUTION. 

Thou  art  a  prophet ;  I  perceive  that,  [that  fact,  thou  art  a 
prophet.] 


EXERCISES  IN  FALSE. CONSTRUCTION. 

SOLEMN    STYLE. 

Who  is  thou,  O  man,  that  presume  on  thy  own  wisdom  ? 
Thou  ought  to  know  thou  are  ignorant. 

He  that  confess  his  sins  and  forsake  them,  shall  find  mercy. 

A  soft  answer  turn  away  wrath.  Anger  rest  in  the  bosom 
of  fools. 

FAMILIAR    STYLE. 

Philadelphia  are  a  beautiful  city ;  it  stand  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Delaware  ;  its  streets  art  regular  ;  its  side- walks  is  well 
paved  ;  it  containeth  people  who  speaks  different  languages  ; 
its  mechanics  is  noted  for  good  workmanship  ;  its  literary  men 
is  distinguished  for  science. 


APPENDIX.  191 

New  York  are  a  growing  city  ;  its  harbor  art  large  and  of 
easy  entrance  ;  it  wilt  be  a  great  emporium  of  trade.  Their 
inhabitants  is  industrious  and  enterprising  ;  they  is  Distinguish- 
ed for  arts. 

Boston  have  been  lately  incorporated  into  a  city.  The 
growth  of  the  city  have  been  very  rapid.  Their  inhabitants  is 
distinguished  for  enterprise  and  learning.  Great  improvements 
has  been  made  recently  in  their  streets,  buildings  and  commer- 
cial conveniences. 

New  Haven  wast  incorporated  in  January  in  the  year  seven- 
teen hundred  and  eighty  four.  Their  streets  is  regular,  and  it 
are  ornamented  with  trees,  which  renders  the  city  most  beauti- 
tiful.  Yale  College  presenteth  a  noble  view  from  the  open 
square.  The  town  were  settled  in  1638. 

Hartford  standcth  on  the  west  banks  of  the   Connecticut ; 
their  surrounding  country   consist  of  most  fertile  land  ;  and  it 
have  a  great  internal  trade.     The  town  was  settled  in  the  year 
sixteen  hundred  and  thirty  six,  and  incorporated  in  May,  in  the . 
year  seventeen  hundred  and  eighty  four. 

New  London,  Norwich  and  Middletown  was  incorporated  in 
May  in  the  year  seventeen  hundred  and  eighty  four.  They 
is  handsome  cities.  New  London  have  one  of  the  best  harbors 
in  the  world. 

His  cattle  is  very  large. >  Our  constitution  were  formed  in 
the  year  seventeen  hundred  and  eighty  seven.  The  church 
are  often  disgraced  by  hypocrites.  A  multitude  were  assembled. 

That  pens  want  mending.  This  books  is  torn.  These  is  a 
fine  day.  I  do  not  like  these  sort  of  clothes.  Those  kind  of 
horses  are  excellent  for  the  harness. 

He  which  is  not  contented  with  the  goods  of  fortune  whom 
he  now  enjoys,  might  be  unhappy  with  greater  possessions. 

He  which  delights  in  low  tricks  want  dignity  of  mind. 

He  which  is  guilty  of  cheating  must  be  rewarded  with  the 
infamy  whom  he  deserves. 

His  sister  which  is  much  beloved  by  his  acquaintance,  for  its 
virtue  and  good  sense,  is  older  than  I  am ;  he  sings  sweetly  ; 
and  he  charms  by  their  modesty. 

Virtue  is  his  own  reward  ;  it  keep  conscience  tranquil. 

The  states  who  lie  on  the  east  of  the  Alleghany  mountains  is 
called  the  Atlantic  states. 

The  forest  are  full  of  birds  who  delight  us  with  their  songs. 


192  APPENDIX. 

The  boys  who  I  admire  are  those  which  are  studious.  The 
women  who  you  saw  are  very  handsome.  The  ladies  which 
possess  modesty  and  good  sense  are  respected. 

See  that  boys  impudence.  The  ladys  bonnet  is  awry.  John 
his  book  is  lost. 

It  was  proposed  to  he  and  /,  that  we  should  study  in  the  same 
room.  The  story  was  told  to  we  and  they.  I  and  you  is  yet 
young  ;  we  are  younger  than  them.  The  instructor  taught  / 
and  she. 

Him  being  sick,  the  physician  was  called. 

Her  being  dressed,  she  went  to  church. 

Them  being  convened,  the  business  was  begun. 

I  did  not  hear  nothing  about  the  affair.  He  did  not  hear  not 
one  word.  They  do  not  care  nothing  about  the  war  in  Europe. 
We  did  not  pay  nothing  for  our  dinner.  We  see  the  apples  on 
the  tree,  but  we  can  not  get  none. 

A  woman  which  have  merit,  improved  by  a  refined  and  vir- 
tuous education,  retain,  in  his  decline,  a  influence  over  the 
men,  more  flattering  than  those  of  beauty. 

Admirable  would  be  the  effects  of  such  refined  education, 
contributing  no  less  to  public  good  than  to  private  happiness. 
An  man,  which  at  present  must  degrade  herself  to  a  fop  or  an 
coxcomb  in  order  to  please  the  women,  would  soon  discover 
that  their  favor  are  not  to  be  gained,  but  by  exerting  every 
manly  talents  in  public  and  private  life  ;  and  the  two  sexes  in- 
stead of  corrupting  each  other,  would  be  rivals  in  the  race  of 
virtue.  Mutual  esteem  would  be  to  each  a  school  of  courtesy ; 
and  a  mutual  desire  of  pleasing  would  give  politeness  to  their 
behavior,  delicacy  to  their  sentiments,  and  tenderness  to  their 
passions. 


10    8829 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


RECEIVED 

APR  2     *IEM 

JDLJC  -P*YCH  LIPRARY 

' 

CliD  1CPT  TO   H^^^1 

RECEIVFT 

DEC  08  1989  -5  F 

M 

EDUC-PSYCH.  IH->-  

General  Library 


